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EDWARD  WXKJtEN  CAPM 


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PRINCETON,  N.  J.  llf 


Purchased   by  the    Hamill   Missionary   Fund. 


BV  2105  .C4  1914 
Capen,  Edward  Warren,  1870 
Sociological  progress  in 
mission  lands 


Sociological  Progress  in 
Mission  Lands 


Sociological  Progress 
in  Mission  Lands 


By     y 
EDWARD  WARREN  CAPEN,  Ph.  D. 

Secretary,  Kennedy  School  of  Missions,  Hartford, 
Conn.;  Author  of  "The  Historical  Devel- 
opment of  the  Connecticut  Poor- Law." 


Introduction  by 

JAMES  A.  KELSO,  Ph.  D.,  D.  D. 

President  Western  Theological  Seminary, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 


PFC  15  1914 


New    York  Chicago  Toronto 

Fleming      H.      Revell      Company 

London  and  Edinburgh 


Copyright,  1914,  by 
FLEMING  H.  REVELL  COMPANt 


New  York:  158  Fifth  Avenue 
Chicago:  125  North  Wabash  Ave. 
Toronto:  25  Richmond  Street,  W. 
London:  21  Paterrtoster  Square 
Edinburgh:      100    Princes    Street 


To  my  Father 

Idol  of  my  boyhood 

Companion  of  my  manhood 

Always  living  in  the  spiritual  world 

Passionately  devoted  to  the  Kingdom  of  God 

In  advocacy  of  peace 

In  civic  reform 

In  missionary  leadership 

Who  went  home  from  the  firing-line 


Introduction 

By  James  A.    Kelso,    Ph.  D.,  JD.  D.y 

President  Western  Theological  Seminary 

ONLY  a  few  interested  observers  are  aware 
of  the  stupendous  changes  being  wrought 
in  heathen  society  by  the  leaven  of  Chris- 
tianity. It  is  common  enough  for  supporters  of 
foreign  missions  to  use  the  arithmetical  test  as  an 
index  of  the  progress  and  influence  of  their  faith  in 
pagan  lands,  but  only  the  very  thoughtful  take  into 
consideration  the  social  revolution  which  the  preach- 
ing of  the  Gospel  has  effected  in  the  ancient  civili- 
zations of  Asia  and  the  rude  tribes  of  Africa  and 
the  Islands  of  the  Sea.  A  study  of  sociological 
progress  in  missionary  lands  constitutes  a  modern 
apologia,  not  only  for  foreign  missions,  but  also  for 
the  social  power  of  the  Gospel.  Our  age  has  wit- 
nessed a  singular  spectacle — the  denial  of  the  social 
dynamic  of  Christianity,  not  only  by  the  out-and- 
out  socialist  but  also  by  those  who  are  within  the 
pale  of  the  Church.  It  is  not  strange  that  Karl 
Marx  and  his  followers  wish  to  destroy  the  idea  of 
God  as  the  keystone  of  a  perverted  civilization  and 
denounce  Christianity  as  the  bulwark  of  the  present 
economic  system.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  certainly 
startling  to  discover  the  defiant  attitude  of  many 
earnest  men  and  women,  members  of  the  Church  or 

7 


8  Introduction 

standing  in  sympathetic  relations  with  her,  who  are 
working  for  the  amelioration  of  social  conditions 
and  the  removal  of  the  wrongs  of  our  age.  Dis- 
mayed by  the  apathy  of  the  Church  and  a  large 
proportion  of  Christian  people,  this  class  have  been 
easily  led  to  mistake  this  spirit  of  indifference  to 
the  social  implications  of  the  Gospel  for  the  typical 
Christian  attitude  towards  the  problem  of  social 
welfare.  Often  in  despair  they  claim  that  Christi- 
anity cares  nothing  for  the  ills  of  this  existence  but 
is  lost  in  dreams  of  other-worldliness,  hence  as  they 
face  the  inequalities  and  wrongs  of  the  social  order 
they  fling  their  taunt : 

"Ah  but,  Eeligion,  did  we  wait  for  thee 

5J:  *  *  *  *  * 

.     .     .    .     we  should  wait  indeed  !  " 

"  Sociological  Progress  in  Missionary  Lands  "  not 
only  refutes  the  materialistic  contentions  of  the 
socialist,  but  also  removes  the  misgivings  and  doubts 
of  thoughtful  Christians  when  they  consider  the 
failure  of  Christianity  to  remove  many  of  the  plague 
spots  of  our  own  social  order.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  hark  back  to  the  early  history  of  the  Church  to 
learn  that  with  the  Christian  religion  was  born  a 
new  force  of  '  immeasurable  social  significance,'  or 
that  the  new  religion,  as  Lecky  puts  it,  aroused  to  a 
'  degree  before  unexampled  in  the  world  an  en- 
thusiastic devotion  to  corporate  welfare.'  To 
realize  the  truth  of  these  assertions  one  has  but  to 
turn  to  the  annals  of  contemporary  Christian  mis- 


Introduction  g 

sions  all  over  the  non-Christian  world.  The  Chris- 
tian missionary  has  gone  to  these  lands  to  proclaim 
the  evangel  of  redemption  through  Christ ;  to  put  it 
specifically — to  save  individual  souls,  and  lo,  there 
comes  as  a  by-product,  the  infusion  of  a  new  leaven 
into  the  social  order,  which  tends  to  remove  evils 
that  have  been  securely  intrenched  in  heathen 
society  not  for  centuries  but  for  millenniums.  We 
may  cite  a  single  example.  The  caste  system  of 
India  has  begun  to  fall  before  the  social  ethics  of 
Christianity  while  Buddhism,  which  was  to  an 
extent  a  revolt  against  this  feature  of  Hindu 
society,  beat  in  vain  against  this  adamantine  rock. 

In  this  volume  Mr.  Capen  has  dealt  with  this 
sociological  by-product  of  Christian  missions.  He 
is  adequately  equipped  for  the  performance  of  this 
task  as  he  is  a  scientifically  trained  sociologist  and 
has  investigated  by  travel  and  observation  the 
problems  with  which  he  deals.  He  possesses  the 
combined  resources  of  a  scientific  investigator  and 
an  eye-witness.  On  account  of  his  equipment  for 
the  performance  of  this  task,  he  was  selected  to 
deliver  these  lectures  at  the  Western  Theological 
Seminary  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  located  at 
Pittsburgh,  during  the  second  semester  of  the  aca- 
demic year  1911-1912,  in  connection  with  the  L.  H. 
Severance  Foundation. 

This  lectureship  was  endowed  by  the  late 
Mr.  Louis  H.  Severance,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  for 
the  purpose  of  providing  instruction  on  foreign  mis- 
sionary themes.    No  layman  of  the  Presbyterian 


io  Introduction 

Church  was  more  deeply  interested  in  or  more 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  work  and  problems 
of  evangelizing  the  heathen  world,  and  his  aim  in 
making  the  gift  which  rendered  this  course  of  lec- 
tures possible  was  to  awaken  among  the  theological 
students  an  abiding  and  intelligent  interest  in  the 
spread  of  the  Gospel  in  pagan  lands. 


Preface 

THIS  book  consists  of  six  lectures,  somewhat 
changed  and  enlarged,  which  were  de- 
livered in  the  winter  of  1912  before  the 
Western  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania.  The  theme 
was  announced  as  Sociological  Progress  in  Mission 
Lands.  A  fuller  but  too  cumbersome  phrasing 
would  have  been,  An  Examination  of  Sociological 
Progress  in  Mission  Lands  with  Special  Keference 
to  the  Influence  of  Christian  Missions  as  a  Factor  in 
this  Progress  and  with  some  Allusions  to  the  Duty 
of  the  Church  in  the  Face  of  these  Mighty  Social 
Movements.  In  many  ways,  it  would  be  more 
satisfactory  to  speak  of  this  book  as  a  study  of  the 
sociological  results  of  missions;  but  in  that  case 
it  would  be  necessary  to  omit  many  interesting 
phenomena  or  to  run  the  risk  of  claiming  too  much 
for  the  influence  of  the  missionary. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  process  of  social  develop- 
ment is  too  complex  for  one  to  claim  that  the 
changes  have  been  due  to  the  operation  of  any 
single  cause,  however  influential  that  may  have 
been.  In  the  early  days,  the  changes  in  countries 
like  India  and  Hawaii  were  due  chiefly  to  mission- 
ary influence,  as  the  missionaries  exercised  almost 

ii 


12  Preface 

the  only  reformatory  force  at  work.  Of  late  years, 
however,  many  other  influences  have  cooperated 
with  that  of  Christian  missions  in  producing  these 
changes  and  it  would  be  folly  to  claim  for  Chris- 
tianity a  monopoly  of  the  influence,  except  in  the 
remote  sense  that  these  influences  have  come  from 
the  West  and  that  the  West  has  been  largely 
moulded  by  Christianity.  Again,  many  a  reform 
which  has  been  started  by  a  missionary  or  native 
Christian  has  been  adopted  by  others  until  the 
origin  of  the  initial  impulse  has  been  forgotten,  and 
any  exclusive  claim  by  Christians  of  the  credit  for 
the  change  might  be  regarded  as  insulting  as  well 
as  false.  Hence  the  book  contents  itself  with  the 
simpler  task  of  sketching  some  of  these  social 
changes,  the  part  the  Christian  missionary  has 
played  in  their  production,  and  the  resulting  chal- 
lenge to  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ. 

No  worker  in  this  field  but  is  under  the  greatest 
obligation  to  Dr.  James  S.  Dennis  for  the  pioneer 
work  which  he  has  here  done.  His  "  Christian 
Missions  and  Social  Progress"  is  a  monumental 
work,  which  none  but  one  possessed  of  ample  re- 
sources and  untiring  patience  could  ever  have  pro- 
duced. I  have  freely  used  the  materials  found  in 
this  thesaurus  of  information  on  social  subjects, 
wherever  my  subject  has  concerned  those  sections 
which  Dr.  Dennis  so  thoroughly  explored.  I  wish 
also  to  express  my  personal  obligation  to  Dr. 
Dennis  for  assistance  most  willingly  granted  me  in 
past  years. 


Preface  13 

To  those  whose  generosity  made  possible  the 
personal  investigations  referred  to  in  this  book,  I 
would  at  this  time  pay  tribute ;  and  especially  to 
frim  who  would  eagerly  have  read  these  pages,  and 
who  in  the  other  world  awaits  the  consummation  of 
the  task  to  which  he  gave  his  life.  I  am  also  under 
obligation  to  the  friends  in  Pittsburgh  and  Boston 
who  have  taken  a  kindly  interest  in  these  lectures, 
have  urged  their  publication,  and  suggested  impor- 
tant improvements. 

It  has  not  seemed  wise  in  a  book  of  this  char- 
acter and  size  to  give  in  foot-notes  the  authority 
for  each  statement  of  fact.  Instead,  references 
have  been  given  for  some  of  the  more  significant 
facts  and  for  most  of  the  quotations,  and  in  an  ap- 
pendix are  listed  a  few  of  the  important  works 
which  have  been  used  in  collecting  the  material  for 
these  chapters. 

E.  W.  C. 

Hartford,  Conn. 


Contents 


I.        The  Problem 17 

47 


II.      Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance 
Inefficiency,  and  Poverty 


III.  Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life 

and  the  Position  of  Woman    . 

IV.  Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  . 

V.  Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction 

VI.  Christianizing    Tendencies    in    Non- 

Christian  Religions 

Bibliography         .... 
Index     .... 


95 
138 
189 

232 

280 
285 


*5 


THE  PEOBLEM 

BEFORE  entering  upon  the  discussion  of  the 
sociological  progress  that  has  been  wit- 
nessed within  the  last  hundred  years  in  the 
countries  where  the  Christian  missionary  has  been 
labouring,  it  is  necessary  to  set  forth  the  problem. 
This  includes  an  inquiry  into  the  basis  of  social 
institutions  and  customs,  the  causes  of  social 
changes,  and  their  limitations. 

It  needs  no  profound  investigation  to  realize  that 
individuals  are  to  a  very  large  extent  the  product 
of  their  environment,  material  and  human.  Chil- 
dren are  born  into  a  family,  the  form  of  which  is 
prescribed  by  the  state.  The  home  in  which  they 
are  brought  up  conforms  to  certain  standards  pre- 
scribed by  custom,  if  not  by  law.  The  food  people 
eat  and  the  clothing  they  wear  have  been  produced 
by  others,  and  have  come  to  them  through  com- 
plicated industrial  channels,  which  ramify  through- 
out the  world.  The  content  of  education  is  the  re- 
sult of  the  strivings  of  men  for  knowledge  through- 
out human  history,  and  its  provision  and  content 
are  both  prescribed  by  society.  Even  in  the  re- 
ligious life,  the  truths  which  are  taught  have  been 
battled  over  and  been  achieved  at  a  great  cost  of 
energy  and  of  life  itself,  and  this  religion  centres 

*7 


18    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

in  the  Church,  which  is  itself  subject  to  human  law 
and  is  a  social  institution. 

Social  control  is  about  men  constantly,  and  those 
who  violate  social  customs  have  to  suffer  the  con- 
sequences, either  in  social  ostracism  or  in  the  penal- 
ties of  statute  law.  People  are  more  or  less  con- 
sciously aware  of  their  dependence  upon  those 
about  them,  less  so  of  their  dependence  upon  those 
who  are  more  remotely  serving  them,  and  ordinarily 
city-dwellers  are  least  of  all  conscious  of  their  de- 
pendence upon  nature.  It  is  only  when  a  coal 
famine  threatens,  or  the  supply  of  food  partially 
fails,  and  men  have  to  pay  more  for  what  they  eat, 
that  they  are  brought  face  to  face  with  the  funda- 
mental fact  that  everything  of  a  material  sort 
comes  from  nature.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who 
are  engaged  in  the  primary  occupations  of  agri- 
culture and  mining  have  no  doubt  regarding  this 
fact,  nor  do  the  people  in  less  highly  developed 
civilizations  than  our  own,  where  famines  are  of 
frequent  occurrence,  and  millions  never  know  what 
it  is  to  have  more  than  one  meal  a  day,  and  even 
that  barely  sufficient  to  support  life.  Through  the 
past  ages  men  have  learned  by  bitter  experience 
how  to  extract  from  nature  the  means  of  satisfying 
their  bodily  needs,  and  how  to  live  and  work 
together  for  their  best  interests. 

Social  institutions  and  customs  are  nothing  more 
than  the  stereotyping  of  the  adaptations  to  nature 
and  to  their  fellow-men  which  men  have  found,  or 
have  thought  they  have  found,  to  be  conducive  to 


The  Problem  19 

their  well-being,  and  which  they  therefore  impose 
upon  individuals  in  the  interests  of  society.  They 
thus  embody  the  ideals  which  men  have  held  up 
before  themselves  and  prescribe  the  lines  within 
which  the  individual  must  walk.  Change  these 
ideals,  or  introduce  new  knowledge  or  new  factors 
into  the  relations  of  men  to  one  another  or  to 
nature,  and  the  social  institutions  and  customs 
change  inevitably,  though  usually  slowly.  Law 
and  custom  tend  to  lag  behind  and  they  often 
embody  ideals  that  are  passing  away.  They  may, 
however,  express  an  ideal  which  the  leaders  in 
thought  have  been  able  to  put  into  force  and  to 
use  as  a  lever  for  bringing  the  rest  of  the  people  up 
to  a  new  level.  Illustrations  of  both  possibilities 
are  seen  in  our  American  life  to-day.  The  present 
statutes  for  regulating  industrial  combinations  were 
framed  to  meet  a  situation  which  was  passed  a 
decade  and  more  ago.  On  the  other  hand,  leaders 
in  tenement  house  reform  endeavour  to  secure  the 
enactment  of  building  regulations  which  are  in 
advance  of  the  opinion  of  the  majority  and  by 
sheer  force  of  character  and  influence  are  able  to 
get  a  lever  by  which  they  raise  the  whole  housing 
standard  of  the  community.  Institutions  and  cus- 
toms are  thus  not  something  mechanically  im- 
posed from  without  but  are  the  embodiment  of  the 
experience  and  ideals  of  a  group  of  men  living 
together  in  a  given  environment  and  under  given 
conditions. 
The  causes  of  social  changes  are  the  introduction 


20    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

of  new  factors  into  these  relationships.  A  natural 
calamity  like  the  earthquake  at  Messina  does  more 
than  throw  down  buildings ;  it  dislocates  institu- 
tions, breaks  up  customs,  and  may  lead  to  profound 
social  changes.  Introduce  into  a  country  like 
Japan  a  new  industrial  system,  and  the  customs, 
laws,  and  institutions  which  have  served  feudal 
Japan  for  centuries  become  almost  as  unsuited  to 
meet  the  new  situation  as  the  old  armour  of  the 
samurai  would  have  been  to  protect  the  Japanese 
troops  in  their  assaults  upon  Port  Arthur.  The 
life  of  England  in  every  department  has  been  pro- 
foundly affected  by  the  introduction  of  a  single 
invention,  the  steam-engine.  This  produced  the 
industrial  revolution  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
led  naturally  to  the  profound  social  and  govern- 
mental changes  now  in  progress.  Not  that  this 
has  been  the  only  factor,  but  it  helped  to  set  in 
operation  the  forces  which  are  transforming  aristo- 
cratic England  into  a  democracy. 

New  relations  to  God  and  man  are  other  factors 
that  produce  social  changes.  Nineteen  centuries 
ago  there  appeared  in  Galilee  a  preacher  of  a  new 
doctrine.  The  power  of  His  divine  personality, 
which  impressed  itself  upon  a  group  of  obscure  men, 
put  before  the  world  new  ideals  of  life,  and  these 
at  once  began  to  transform  a  pagan  world  into 
a  Christian  world  and  to  render  obsolete,  even 
hideous,  institutions  and  customs  which  had  em- 
bodied the  lower  ideals  of  the  ancient  civilization. 
Slavery  was  rendered  unproductive  by  industrial 


The  Problem  21 

changes,  but  the  preaching  of  the  brotherhood  of 
man  cooperated  with  this  economic  force  in  abolish- 
ing the  sale  of  human  beings  as  things.  These  two 
causes  of  change,  material  and  spiritual,  have  in  all 
ages  worked  side  by  side  in  guiding  men  into  new 
experiences,  with  their  resulting  modifications  of 
custom  and  institution. 

At  any  single  point  in  the  process  of  social  evolu- 
tion, the  possibilities  of  change  are  limited  by  the 
environment  and  the  character  of  the  people.  The 
effect  of  climate  upon  the  life  and  character  of  a 
community  is  not  fully  understood,  but  that  it  has 
a  definite  effect  is  not  a  matter  of  doubt.  The 
intense  heat  of  the  tropics  reduces  the  energy  of 
the  inhabitants,  and  encourages  social  customs  and 
habits  of  life  which  are  quite  different  from  those 
that  prevail  where  there  is  need  of  more  protection 
from  the  weather.  Extreme  cold  and  long  winters 
are  also  unfavourable  to  economic  progress,  except 
where  a  complicated  system  of  industry  has  been 
introduced  and  has  made  man  partially  independent 
of  surrounding  conditions. 

The  health  conditions  are  also  of  vital  impor- 
tance. A  population  which  is  being  decimated  by 
cholera,  bubonic  plague,  or  the  sleeping  sickness, 
or  which  has  its  vitality  lowered  by  malaria  or  the 
hook-worm,  is  incapable  of  as  high  a  development 
as  one  which  enjoys  a  greater  certainty  of  life  and 
greater  strength  for  its  tasks.  At  this  point  of 
health,  the  climatic  conditions  are  relatively  flex- 
ible.    Through  the  scientific  control  of  disease,  the 


22    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

enforcement  of  sanitary  regulations,  and  the  adop- 
tion of  proper  methods  of  living,  a  social  and  in- 
dustrial development  is  made  possible  which  would 
otherwise  be  out  of  the  question.  A  comparison  of 
a  classification  of  the  land  surface  of  the  globe  ac- 
cording to  its  healthfulness  to-day  with  a  similar 
one  of  a  few  decades  ago  would  reveal  the  fact  that 
the  margin  within  which  life  is  possible  has  been 
pushed  up  many  per  cent.  Thus,  the  ravages  of 
sleeping  sickness  have  been  checked  in  Busoga, 
British  East  Africa,  cholera  has  been  stamped  out 
in  the  Philippines,  and  the  Panama  Canal  Zone  has 
been  changed  from  a  pest-hole  into  a  sanitarium. 

The  character  and  location  of  the  soil  also  have  a 
determining  influence.  They  limit  the  density  of 
population  that  may  be  supported  on  a  given  area, 
and  condition  the  economic  activities.  These,  in 
turn,  affect  the  social  life  of  the  people.  Here,  too, 
science  comes  in  to  remove  in  part  these  limita- 
tions. By  improvements  in  agriculture  or  by  the 
utilization  for  other  purposes  of  land  which  as  graz- 
ing or  as  farming  land  could  support  but  a  small 
population  on  a  relatively  meagre  scale,  the  number 
that  can  be  supported  on  a  given  area  may  be 
greatly  increased.  The  density  of  population  upon 
Manhattan  Island  and  upon  the  Hand  in  South 
Africa  are  typical  illustrations  of  this  fact. 

Much  has  been  made  in  the  past  of  the  so-called 
"aspect  of  nature."  In  those  regions  where  the 
natural  phenomena  inspire  awe  and  man  seems 
helpless  in  his  contest  with  nature,  the  effect  of 


The  Problem  23 

environment  upon  character  is  different  from  what 
it  is  where  man  is  able  as  a  rule  to  make  nature  his 
servant.  The  great  religions  have  originated  in  the 
tropics,  where  man  is  forced  to  meditate  upon  the 
cause  of  the  phenomena  about  him.  The  hopeless- 
ness of  the  struggle  is  typified  in  the  pessimism 
which  breathes  through  Hinduism  and  Buddhism. 
It  is  suggestive  that  the  great  religion  of  China, — 
or,  rather,  its  ethical  and  social  system, — which 
originated  in  the  north,  is  agnostic.  Confucius  and 
his  followers  did  not  concern  themselves  with  the 
other  world,  but  left  the  people,  who  needed  a 
religion,  to  content  themselves  with  the  pessimism 
that  came  with  Buddhism  from  India,  or  with  the 
crude  speculations  and  superstitions  that  originated 
in  their  own  primitive  days  when  their  command 
over  nature  was  relatively  small. 

Even  in  the  aspect  of  nature  there  are  possibili- 
ties of  modifications  from  two  sources.  Science 
can  control,  or  at  least  can  mitigate,  the  results  of 
natural  phenomena  or  catastrophes,  such  as  flood, 
tempest,  and  earthquake,  and  it  can  lessen  the 
danger  of  famine.  Japan's  success  in  constructing 
buildings  that  resist  earthquake  shocks  severer  than 
those  which  ruined  Messina  ;  the  possibility  of  pre- 
venting by  engineering  works  the  famines  that 
follow  the  frequent  floods  of  the  Yellow  Kiver  in 
China,  and  the  beneficent  results  of  the  irrigation 
works  in  Egypt  and  India,  indicate  how  science  can 
reduce  to  a  minimum  the  evil  social  results  of  such 
great  natural  catastrophes.     Again,  upon  one  who 


24    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

sees  behind  nature  a  loving  Father,  the  effect  of  all 
such  events  will  be  radically  different  from  what  it 
is  upon  one  who  sees  in  them  the  operation  of  evil 
spirits,  who  hate  men  and  rejoice  in  human  suf- 
fering. 

Finally,  the  present  character  and  attainments 
of  the  people  themselves,  however  they  were  pro- 
duced, limit  the  possibility  of  change.  One  cannot 
expect  that  a  people,  who  have  been  kept  in  utter 
ignorance  for  generations,  will  at  once  rise  to  the 
intellectual  level  of  a  country  like  the  United  States, 
back  of  whose  civilization  are  centuries  of  intellec- 
tual progress,  and  whose  people  are  required  to 
receive  mental  training.  Likewise,  on  the  ethical 
side,  a  people  whose  ancestors  have  for  generations 
had  low  standards  of  honesty,  truthfulness,  and 
purity,  cannot  at  once  throw  off  this  heredity. 
Even  the  Spirit  of  God  does  not  immediately  and 
forever  overcome  the  influence  of  an  evil  ancestry 
and  a  bad  social  environment.  The  records  of 
church  discipline  on  the  mission  field  bear  mournful 
testimony  to  this  fact. 

These  are  some  of  the  factors  which  need  to  be 
taken  into  consideration  in  the  discussion  of  the 
possibilities  of  social  change  and  in  an  appraisal  of 
the  worth  of  the  changes  which  one  sees  on  every 
side  in  mission  lands.  The  reformer  needs  to  bear 
in  mind  that  the  millennium  will  not  come  in  a 
day.  It  is  a  mistake  to  expect  too  much  and  so 
become  discouraged.  It  is  easy  to  overshoot  the 
mark    and    be    unduly  disheartened  because   the 


The  Problem  25 

people  are  unwilling  or  unable  to  move  rapidly 
enough. 

It  is  not  necessary  in  these  days  to  refute  the  ob- 
jection, formerly  brought  against  the  work  of  the 
missionary,  namely,  that  it  is  worse  than  useless  to 
introduce  a  new  religion  into  the  Orient,  or  to 
attempt  to  remove  social  abuses  and  modify  social 
customs,  for  the  reasons,  forsooth,  that  the  social 
organization  and  ideals  of  the  East  are  better  suited 
to  the  people  than  anything  the  West  can  offer, 
the  people  are  satisfied  to  remain  as  they  are,  and 
any  changes  that  occur  must  come  exclusively  from 
within  and  by  a  process  of  slow  modification.  The 
recent  history  of  Japan  is  sufficient  to  answer  this 
objection.  This  country,  which  centuries  ago  ac- 
cepted Buddhism  as  one  of  its  religions  and  took 
over  from  China  the  culture  and  much  of  the  social 
organization  bearing  the  name  of  Confucius,  has 
within  a  few  decades  adopted  the  material  civiliza- 
tion of  the  West.  Still  more  recently,  the  world 
has  seen  how  these  different  Asiatic  peoples,  in 
whose  supposed  interest  the  Church  was  commanded 
to  keep  "  hands  off,"  are  themselves  making  changes 
which  are  profoundly  influencing  the  future  of  the 
world.  It  is  important,  however,  to  analyze  this 
process,  see  its  need,  and  discover  the  missionary's 
relation  to  this  movement. 

This  chapter  cannot  do  more  than  outline  these 
new  factors  and  indicate  their  bearing.  Five  new 
factors  may  be  mentioned  as  having  entered  into 


26    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

the  social  life  of  the  East :  Western  influence,  a  new- 
education,  a  new  industry,  new  ethical  and  social 
ideals,  and  new  political  aspirations. 

The  first  new  factor  is  that  of  Western  influence. 
In  a  sense,  this  includes  all  the  others,  for  the 
changes  along  educational,  industrial,  ethical,  and 
political  lines  may  be  traced  to  Western  influence. 
However,  as  all  these  latter  movements  have  been 
taken  over  by  the  people  themselves,  and  have  come 
to  express  their  own  desires  and  ideals,  one  may 
rightly  treat  Western  influence  as  an  independent 
factor,  at  the  same  time  recognizing  its  genetic  re- 
lation to  the  others.  It  has  been  shown  that  men 
are  affected  and  moulded  more  or  less  directly 
through  their  social  relations  with  all  the  individ- 
uals and  groups  of  persons  who  touch  them.  The 
chief  reasons  for  the  differences  in  social  develop- 
ment between  the  Orient  and  the  Occident  have 
been  their  isolation  and  the  contrasts  in  their  en- 
vironments. Starting  with  different  material  sur- 
roundings and  resources,  and  separated  by  natural 
barriers,  the  peoples  of  the  East  and  West  developed 
along  independent  lines.  Until  within  a  century  or 
two  the  relations  between  East  and  West  were  so 
slight  that  their  influence  upon  each  other  wras 
negligible.  In  fact,  it  is  within  only  a  fewr  decades 
that,  through  the  improvement  of  transportation, 
Orient  and  Occident  have  been  brought  into  inti- 
mate relations.  The  development  of  the  transcon- 
tinental railway  system  unified  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  coasts  of  the  United  States.     The  railway 


The  Problem 


27 


development  in  China  has  helped  to  break  down  the 
provincial  spirit  and  thus  has  contributed  to  the 
unity  of  purpose  recently  witnessed  in  that  country's 
change  of  government. 

So,  on  a  larger  scale,  the  whole  world  is  becom- 
ing one.  The  men  of  the  West  carry  their  wares 
to  the  East.  Even  the  introduction  of  so  simple  a 
product  as  a  good  quality  of  illuminating  oil  assists 
in  the  intellectual  progress  of  the  people  of  Asia. 
How  many  American  youth  would  study  even  as 
hard  as  they  now  do,  if  the  old  tallow  candle  were 
their  only  means  of  illumination  ?  The  literature 
of  America,  England,  France,  and  Germany  is  read 
by  the  educated  youth  of  Asia,  either  in  translation 
or  in  the  original,  and  this  literature  often  reflects 
the  worst  side  of  Western  life.  Students  from 
India,  China,  and  Japan  study  in  Europe  or  the 
United  States.  They  become  acquainted  with 
Western  ideals  and  learn  how  the  West  regards 
their  mother  countries.  At  the  same  time,  they 
often  see  more  of  the  worst  elements  in  Western 
life  than  of  the  best.  They  get  a  new  idea  of  the 
world  and  return  home  either  to  advocate  social 
changes  or  to  be  more  tenacious  than  ever  in  cling- 
ing to  their  ancestral  customs.  Thus,  the  thought 
and  life  of  Asia  are  affected  by  this  influence  ema- 
nating from  the  West. 

Secondly,  a  new  education  is  spreading  all  over 
mission  lands,  both  that  furnished  by  the  mission- 
ary and,  still  more  in  certain  countries,  that  pro- 
vided  by  government.     This  means  that  peoples 


28    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

among  whom  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  has  been 
nearly  one  hundred  per  cent,  are  becoming  literate 
and  intelligent.  They  are  broadening  their  mental 
horizon,  they  are  learning  a  new  mastery  over  na- 
ture, they  are  becoming  citizens  of  the  world.  No 
longer  do  the  conditions  that  prevail  around  them 
satisfy  the  needs  of  their  life. 

A  third  new  factor  is  the  new  industry  which  has 
entered  Asia.  The  factory  system  has  been  intro- 
duced into  Japan,  China,  and  India.  It  is  leading 
to  a  massing  of  population  in  cities,  and  to  a 
growth  of  problems  of  housing,  sanitation,  hours 
of  labour,  and  morals  with  which  the  old  institu- 
tions are  unfitted  to  cope.  It  is  introducing  abuses, 
the  removal  of  which  will  tax  the  intelligence  of 
the  leaders  of  these  countries.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  new  industry  has  in  itself  the  promise  of  a 
higher  standard  of  living  and  the  removal  of  the 
burden  of  abject  poverty.  It  teaches  how  nature 
can  be  induced  to  furnish  the  means  whereby  life 
can  be  enriched  on  its  material  side;  it  makes 
possible  the  development  of  public  undertakings  in 
the  interests  of  justice,  public  health,  and  happi- 
ness ;  and  it  furnishes  the  basis  upon  which  the  pro- 
cess of  social  development  can  be  carried  on  with 
greater  efficiency  and  upon  a  higher  plane. 

Fourthly,  new  ethical  and  social  ideals  have  been 
acquired.  Men  who  have  become  familiar  with  the 
thought  of  the  West  and  who  have  learned  to  re- 
gard the  life  about  them  from  a  new  standpoint 
inevitably  acquire  new  ideals  and  become  reform- 


The  Problem  29 

ers.  The  anti-opium  movement  in  China,  the  vari- 
ous reform  movements  in  India,  which  concern 
purity  of  worship  and  the  position  of  woman,  are 
instances  of  this  new  factor.  These  men  become 
centres  of  influence  which  make  for  the  uplift  of 
their  people  and  they  use  public  opinion  and  law  to 
enforce  new  standards. 

New  political  aspirations  are  a  fifth  characteris- 
tic of  the  Orient  to-day.  The  four  factors  already 
mentioned  have  united  to  produce  this  fifth,  which 
is  the  desire  to  emerge  from  political  servitude  or 
political  tutelage  into  political  independence.  The 
nationalistic  movement  in  China  has  transformed 
the  political  institutions  of  that  old  empire,  while  in 
India  the  kindred  movement  has  already  secured 
reforms,  the  possibility  of  which  would  never  have 
been  dreamed  of  a  generation  ago. 

These  are  some  of  the  most  obvious  factors  which 
are  entering  into  the  life  of  the  East.  They  mean 
that  the  relations  between  men  and  their  physical 
and  human  environments  are  changing,  and  that 
customs  and  institutions  which  were  well  adapted, 
it  may  be,  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  former  day  are 
no  longer  satisfactory.  Elements  in  the  life  about 
them  that  have  been  taken  for  granted  in  the  past 
are  now  seen  in  their  true  light,  and  leaders  are 
arising  to  give  the  lie  to  the  assertion  so  frequently 
made  in  the  past,  that  the  life  of  the  Orient  is 
idyllic  and  should  not  be  disturbed  by  the  West. 

What,  now,  are  some  of  the  evils  which  the  re- 


3o    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

formers  are  seeking  to  remove,  or  should  seek  to 
remove  ?  Eight  points  may  be  mentioned  at  which 
there  is  need  of  improvement : 

1.  Ignorance.  Up  to  within  a  comparatively 
recent  period  the  great  mass  of  the  people  of  the 
world  were  ignorant.  Education  and  culture  were 
the  monopoly  of  a  few.  What  was  true  of  all 
Europe  until  a  not  very  remote  past,  what  is  true 
even  now  of  certain  backward  Western  countries  or 
of  some  sections  of  more  progressive  nations,  was 
equally  true  of  Asia  and  Africa.  What  learning 
existed  belonged  to  some  one  class,  or  perhaps  to 
several  classes,  social  or  more  usually  religious. 
The  mass  of  the  people,  including  in  most  cases  all 
the  women,  were  denied  direct  access  to  the  best 
thought  of  their  nation.  It  was  not  only  ignorance 
in  this  sense  which  marked  the  intellectual  activities 
of  the  East,  but  to  this  should  be  added  the  igno- 
rance of  a  narrow  provincialism,  both  international 
and  national,  if  one  may  use  such  terms.  That  is, 
the  people  of  such  countries  as  Japan  and  China 
believed  their  civilization  to  be  the  best  in  the 
world,  and  regarded  all  other  peoples  as  barbarous. 
They  were  unwilling  to  make  changes  because  they 
regarded  their  own  institutions  to  be  beyond  re- 
proach. This  may  be  called  international  provin- 
cialism. Within  the  limits  of  most  countries,  like- 
wise, there  existed  a  national  provincialism.  The 
people  were  divided  into  sections  by  racial,  linguis- 
tic, or  religious  barriers,  which  made  impossible 
the  free  interchange  of  ideas  and  all  united  effort. 


The  Problem 


31 


The  first  condition  of  progress  is  intelligence,  and 
this  must  be  supplemented  by  freedom  of  commu- 
nication for  persons,  commodities,  and  ideas  within 
the  region  in  question.  These  conditions  were  ab- 
sent in  Asia  until  recently,  and  for  the  most  part 
they  are  still  wanting.     Here  is  an  obvious  evil. 

2.  Physical  suffering,  due  to  ignorance  of  sani- 
tation and  medical  science.  No  one  but  a  medical 
man  or  woman  can  fully  appreciate  what  this  means 
to  the  people  of  the  East.  The  foolish  or  disgust- 
ing medicines  and  the  cruel  practices  of  the  medi- 
cine-men need  not  be  dwelt  upon.  In  large  sections 
of  the  non-Christian  world  half  the  population  has 
to  suffer  practically  without  hope  of  relief,  and 
until  women  can  be  relieved  of  this  unnecessary 
burden,  there  is  a  social  benefit  to  be  conferred. 
Apart,  however,  from  the  consequences  to  individ- 
uals, the  lack  of  an  understanding  of  the  principles 
of  sanitation,  hygiene,  and  medicine  seriously  af- 
fects the  progress  of  society.  Premature  death  de- 
prives society  of  the  services  of  millions  each  year, 
while  the  results  of  disabling  injuries  and  disease 
not  only  take  from  society  possible  contributors  to 
its  wealth  but  also  impose  upon  it  the  burden  of 
supporting  a  large  class  of  dependents.  Hence,  in 
the  interests  of  humanity  and  of  social  efficiency, 
this  is  another  point  at  which  progress  is  de- 
manded. 

3.  A  third  closely  related  evil  is  that  of  economic 
inefficiency.  There  are  countries  where  the  popula- 
tion is  not  given  to  overmuch  exertion  and  the 


32    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

charge  of  laziness  might  be  sustained.  Even  here 
good  reasons  might  often  be  given  for  holding  that 
much  of  this  apparent  unwillingness  to  work  pro- 
ductively is  traceable  to  their  system  of  the  division 
of  labour,  by  which  war  and  the  chase  are  the  proper 
occupations  for  men.  Other  contributing  causes  are 
the  lack  of  the  spur  of  necessity  and  uncertainty 
as  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  fruits  of  toil.  The 
greatest  peoples  of  the  Orient,  however,  contain  a 
body  of  labourers  whose  patience,  persistence,  and 
endurance  are  most  admirable,  far  surpassing  that 
of  Western  artisans.  At  the  same  time,  the  output 
of  their  toil  is  pitifully  small.  They  have  so  little 
command  over  natural  forces  that  their  labour  is 
unproductive,  and  even  after  their  long  hours  they 
have  little  to  show  for  their  toil,  measured  either  in 
cash  or  in  goods.  Missionaries  in  India  declare  that 
the  half-dozen  or  more  servants  they  have  to  employ 
are  less  efficient  than  a  single  good  servant  of  the 
old  type  in  an  American  home.  To  be  sure,  these 
workmen  often  possess  much  artistic  ability  and 
even  technical  skill,  but  their  tools  are  so  crude,  if 
ingenious,  that  their  output  is  small.  Some  Indian 
tools  have  been  declared  by  an  expert  to  combine 
ingenuity  and  stupidity.  If  a  high  degree  of  civili- 
zation is  to  be  enjoyed  by  the  mass  of  the  people, 
it  needs  for  its  basis  an  economic  efficiency  far  sur- 
passing that  which  was  prevalent  in  Africa  or  Asia 
before  the  advent  of  the  present  new  industrial  era. 
4.  As  a  result  of  these  three  evils,  we  have  a 
fourth,  the  low  standard  of  living.    Nothing  but 


The  Problem  33 

poverty,  and  poverty  of  an  abject  sort,  can  be  ex- 
pected under  the  conditions  already  indicated,  and 
that  is  what  one  finds.  It  is  probable  that  in  the 
slums  of  London  or  New  York  may  be  found  many 
cases  of  greater  degradation,  even  of  greater  suffer- 
ing, than  exist  in  these  great  Eastern  countries  under 
normal  conditions.  At  the  same  time,  the  poverty  of 
the  Orient  must  be  seen  and  studied  to  be  appre- 
ciated. A  large  percentage  of  the  people  of  China 
and  especially  of  India  is  never  well  nourished.  A 
smaller  percentage,  but  still  a  frightfully  large  one, 
is  always  on  the  verge  of  starvation,  and  needs  only 
some  calamity,  like  flood  or  famine,  to  put  it  in  a 
starving  condition.  In  India,  competent  authorities 
declare  that  from  forty  to  sixty  millions  lie  down 
hungry  upon  a  mud  floor  every  night,  after  but  one 
or  at  most  two  scanty  meals  during  the  day.  This 
is  when  famine  conditions  do  not  prevail.  An 
Indian  member  of  the  British  Parliament  estimated 
that  the  average  income  per  capita  in  India  was  only 
seven  dollars  a  year ;  Lord  Cromer's  estimate  was 
nine  dollars ;  and  the  Hindu  writer,  Mr.  R.  C.  Dutt, 
contrasts  the  average  income  in  England  of  $210  a 
year  with  that  in  India  of  ten.  In  one  district  of 
South  India  the  class  of  day  labourers  get  but 
twenty  dollars  a  year  for  themselves  and  their 
families.1  Fifty-three  per  cent,  of  the  population 
are  dependents. 

Even  this  is  not  all.    In  many  of  these  Eastern 

*Eddy,    S.,  "  India  Awakening,"    p.    21.    Cf.    Jones,  J.  P., 
"India's  Problem,  Krishna  or  Christ,"  p.  19. 


34    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

countries,  even  those  who  can  manage  to  exist  in  a 
fairly  vigorous  manner  live  in  homes  which  are 
inferior  in  many  respects  to  the  buildings  in  which 
we  house  animals.  This  is  not  to  say  that  a 
tolerably  rich  and  an  entirely  Christian  life  cannot 
be  lived  with  fewer  creature  comforts  than  are  to 
be  found  in  the  homes  of  the  United  States,  or  that 
our  people  are  not  in  danger  of  over-emphasis  upon 
the  material  side  of  life.  It  is,  however,  to  main- 
tain that,  from  the  standpoint  of  humanity  or  of 
Christianity,  the  standard  of  living  of  a  great  pro- 
portion of  these  people,  often  of  a  vast  majority,  is 
below  that  which  can  in  any  way  be  satisfactory 
to  one  who  desires  to  see  each  child  of  God  living 
the  abundant  life  which  Christ  came  to  give  to  men. 
Privacy,  decency,  and  something  to  minister  to  the 
aesthetic  and  intellectual,  as  well  as  to  the  ethical 
and  spiritual  side  of  man's  nature,  are  elements  in 
the  minimum  with  which  any  broad-minded  Chris- 
tian or  social  worker  can  be  satisfied.  Besides  this, 
men  and  women  must  cease  to  be  used  as  beasts  of 
burden  or  mere  machines  and  must  have  an  occupa- 
tion that  is  worthy  of  a  human  being. 

5.  Again,  we  find  that  the  status  of  woman 
constitutes  another  typical  evil  among  these  people. 
There  are  great  variations  here,  but  in  general  the 
women  of  Asia  and  Africa  have  been  regarded  as 
inferior  to  men  both  in  ability  and  in  character. 
They  were  denied  the  privilege  of  education  on 
the  grounds  of  incapacity  and  social  inexpediency. 
They  were  often  treated  like  chattels.    Their  chief 


The  Problem 


35 


function  was  to  satisfy  the  passions  of  men  and 
bear  children.  They  were  too  often  the  victims  of 
cruelty  and  lust.  It  would  be  wrong  to  conclude 
from  this  that  women  were  without  influence. 
Ignorant  and  despised,  they  nevertheless  were  in 
many  countries  powerful  factors  in  the  life  of  society. 
The  result  was  inevitable,  for  the  higher  degrees  of 
civilization  or  culture  are  impossible  when  half  of 
the  population  is  kept  in  ignorance  and  denied  the 
rights  that  belong  to  a  humanity  touched  by  the 
Spirit  of  God.  From  the  disabilities  of  women 
have  flowed  consequences  in  the  family  life  which 
are  most  serious  from  the  social  point  of  view. 

6.  Another  evil  was  the  low  estimate  put  upon 
the  individual.  This  was  shown  in  the  cheapness 
of  human  life.  The  individual  counted  for  little. 
The  killing  of  hundreds  or  even  of  thousands  in 
constructing  public  works,  in  war,  or  as  a  con- 
sequence of  some  catastrophe  or  scourge,  was  re- 
garded as  an  event  of  no  importance.  The  callous- 
ness to  human  suffering  that  is  so  prevalent  outside 
the  domain  of  a  vital  Christianity  is  akin  to  this 
view  of  the  value  of  life.  Another  aspect  of  the 
same  evil  is  the  lack  of  a  sense  of  individual  respon- 
sibility, and  the  denial  to  the  individual  of  the 
opportunity  for  development.  As  a  member  of  a 
family,  a  guild,  a  caste,  a  clan,  or  a  tribe,  the  in- 
dividual had  his  place  and  was  cared  for.  As  an 
individual,  he  counted  for  next  to  nothing.  What 
his  fathers  had  been  for  generations,  he  and  his 
descendants  had  to  remain.     It  was  regarded  as 


36    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

impious  for  a  man  in  India  to  attempt  to  change 
his  social  status.  China,  with  its  mixture  of 
democracy  and  absolutism,  did  permit  the  man  of 
ability  to  rise,  but  the  value  put  upon  the  ordinary 
individual  was  low.  This  general  position  stunted 
the  growth  of  individuality  and  prevented  a  full 
social  development. 

7.  Another  social  evil,  which  was  common,  was 
that  of  the  corruption  and  inefficiency  of  the  gov- 
ernment. Justice,  in  our  meaning  of  the  term,  was 
practically  unknown,  its  place  being  taken  by  the 
decision  of  the  personal  ruler,  who  often  followed 
his  caprice  or  whim,  or  decided  in  favour  of  the 
one  who  could  offer  the  largest  bribe.  Life  and 
property  were  both  subject  to  his  will,  and  the  lack 
of  security  here  hindered  economic  and  social  de- 
velopment. The  theory  of  government  was  that  of 
exploitation  in  the  interests  of  the  ruling  class,  and 
the  well-being  of  the  people  was  a  matter  of  very 
minor  importance. 

8.  Lastly,  we  may  mention  the  low  ethical 
standards.  There  is  great  danger  of  misrepresenta- 
tion at  this  point ;  but  in  general  it  may  be  said 
that  in  such  matters  as  purity,  honesty,  and  truth- 
fulness the  conditions  were  far  from  satisfactory, 
except  in  certain  isolated  cases.  Out  of  people 
whose  life  is  honeycombed  by  lust,  fraud,  and  du- 
plicity cannot  be  formed  a  social  life  which  shall 
make  for  the  enrichment  and  uplift  of  human  life. 

In  the  light  of  these  statements  regarding  the 


The  Problem  07 

need  of  social  progress,  its  causes,  and  its  limita- 
tions, what  shall  be  said  as  to  the  question  of  the 
relation  of  the  missionary  to  this  whole  subject  ? 

In  general,  the  missionary  has  been  the  pioneer 
social  reformer  in  mission  lands.  Whether  pur- 
posely or  not  is  not  the  question,  but  as  a  matter  of 
fact  the  missionary  has  taken  the  lead.  Of  the  five 
new  factors,  just  enumerated,  which  have  entered 
into  the  life  of  the  Orient,  three  were  introduced  by 
the  missionary,  and  upon  the  remaining  two  his 
work  has  had  a  distinct  bearing. 

In  the  matter  of  Western  influence,  the  mission- 
ary was  the  pioneer.  He  was  the  first  Westerner 
who  brought  the  Western  point  of  view  to  these 
mission  lands.  Usually  the  traders  touched  only  a 
few  points  on  the  coast,  and  their  influence  was  not 
continuous  or  usually  in  favour  of  higher  ideals. 
The  missionary  was  the  one  who  went  into  the  in- 
terior, who  lived  with  and  was  trusted  by  the  peo- 
ple, and  whose  point  of  view  became  known  to 
them.  Even  trade  followed  the  missionary,  and  it 
was  in  those  regions  where  the  missionary  intro- 
duced Western  wares  for  his  own  use,  and  accus- 
tomed the  people  to  them,  that  the  trader  found  a 
market  for  his  goods. 

As  to  the  new  education,  there  is  no  disputing  the 
claim  of  the  missionary  to  the  credit  for  its  intro- 
duction into  most  mission  lands.  Western  schools 
were  introduced  into  China,  India,  Persia,  Turkey, 
Africa,  and  the  other  great  fields  of  Christian  work 
by  the  missionary.     Missionaries  have  done  a  no- 


38    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

table  educational  work  in  Japan.  In  India  and  in 
China  the  best  education  is  still  in  the  hands  of  the 
missionaries,  and  in  certain  fields  they  have  a  prac- 
tical or  even  an  absolute  monopoly. 

A  similar  statement  may  be  made  regarding  the 
new  ethical  and  social  ideals.  It  was  the  mission- 
ary who  first  inaugurated  the  agitation  against 
foot-binding  in  China.  It  was  the  missionary  who 
protested  against  the  obscene  elements  in  the  Hindu 
religion,  against  sati  and  the  evils  connected  with 
the  marriage  system.  It  was  the  missionary  who 
inspired  the  Christian  community  with  higher 
ethical  and  social  ideals  and  thus  set  a  new  stand- 
ard for  the  whole  community. 

In  the  matter  of  the  new  industry,  the  mission- 
ary was  not  in  the  same  sense  the  pioneer,  although 
early  missionary  efforts  in  some  fields  included 
training  in  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts.  In 
India  and  in  Africa  the  missionary  has  made  a  real 
contribution  to  the  economic  progress  of  the  people 
through  industrial  and  manual  training  classes  and 
schools.  Indirectly,  through  inspiring  the  people 
with  new  ideals  and  by  making  them  dissatisfied 
with  the  plane  upon  which  they  had  existed,  he 
aroused  the  people  to  desire  new  and  more  reward- 
ing industries. 

The  political  movements  towards  national  inde- 
pendence cannot  be  attributed  directly  to  the  mis- 
sionary who  is.  everywhere  scrupulous  in  teaching 
loyalty  to  government.  At  the  same  time,  it  was 
through  the  education  given  by  the  missionary  and 


The  Problem 


39 


through  the  information  received  from  him  regard- 
ing the  conditions  in  Europe  and  America  that  the 
first  steps  were  taken  towards  preparing  the  people 
to  desire  and  to  be  fitted  for  a  larger  share  in  the 
government.  A  Christian  college  trained  the  lead- 
ers for  the  new  Bulgaria.  Members  of  the  Young 
Turk  party  publicly  declared  that  they  would  never 
have  dared  to  strike  the  blow  for  liberty  and  con- 
stitutionalism had  they  not  been  sure  of  the  intelli- 
gent and  hearty  support  of  the  young  men  scattered 
throughout  the  country  who  had  been  trained  in 
the  Christian  schools  and  colleges  and  had  become 
firm  believers  in  Western  political  institutions. 

Again,  take  the  eight  typical  evils  enumerated 
above,  and  the  result  is  even  more  interesting  and 
conclusive.  Missionaries  have  done  much  to  remove 
the  evil  of  ignorance.  They  have  introduced  into 
the  East  modern  medicine  and  are  treating  yearly 
millions  of  patients  who  would  otherwise  be  beyond 
the  possibility  of  relief.  Where  the  need  is  the 
greatest,  they  have  undertaken  to  increase  the  in- 
dustrial efficiency  of  the  Christian  community,  and 
to  prepare  Christian  leaders  for  the  new  industry. 
In  various  ways  they  have  raised  the  standard  of 
living  among  the  native  Christians  and  those  who 
are  under  Christian  influence.  Under  the  impulse 
of  Christianity,  woman  has  been  coming  to  her 
own.  Education  has  been  provided  for  her,  and  in 
Christian  homes  the  wife  is  becoming  the  companion 
and  helpmeet  of  her  husband  and  the  intelligent 
guide  and  teacher  of  her  children.     Christianity 


40    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

has  emphasized  the  infinite  worth  of  the  individual 
before  God,  and  the  Christian  has  come  to  have  a 
new  sense  of  self-respect,  and  he  stands  before  the 
community  as  a  free  man  in  Christ.  The  mission- 
ary has  ever  preached  and  exemplified  new  stand- 
ards of  justice,  honour,  truthfulness,  and  purity, 
and  thus  personally  and  through  those  whom  he 
has  influenced  and  trained  he  has  helped  to  solve 
both  the  political  and  the  ethical  problems  of  the 
people  among  whom  he  has  lived.  The  missionary 
body  has  been  the  mightiest  single  social  force  in 
the  changes  which  are  taking  place  to-day  in  Africa 
and  Asia,  even  though  other  factors  have  now 
entered  into  the  movements,  and  the  missionary's 
own  influence  has  become  in  some  ways  relatively 
less  important  than  at  first. 

This  is  the  inevitable  result  of  missionary  work. 
Even  the  missionary  who  is  most  conservative  in 
his  conception  of  the  purpose  of  his  undertaking, 
who  would  carry  on  a  purely  spiritual  work,  and 
who  would  keep  clear  of  all  that  he  would  call 
outside  and  secular,  cannot  avoid  setting  in  motion 
forces  that  will  transform  the  social  environment 
in  which  he  works.  Whether  he  will  or  not,  he  is 
introducing  new  factors  into  society,  and  this 
inevitably  means  changes  in  the  structure  and 
functions  of  the  social  group.  Society,  as  already 
explained,  is  nothing  more  than  the  stereotyping  of 
the  experience  of  a  people  in  adapting  themselves 
to  their  environment,  material,  human,  and  divine. 
It  is  the  embodiment  of  their  ideals  of  life  and 


The  Problem  41 

relationship.  The  mere  acceptance  of  the  Christian 
view  of  God  as  a  being  of  perfect  holiness  and  of 
love,  of  the  Christian  view  of  man  as  a  child  of  the 
loving  heavenly  Father,  and  of  the  Christian  view 
of  human  relationships  as  those  of  brothers,  makes 
at  once  impossible  the  toleration  of  customs  and 
institutions  which  have  been  handed  down  from 
the  past.  Slavery  must  be  abolished,  justice  must 
be  done,  and  men  must  be  permitted  to  live  a  self- 
respecting,  decent  life  upon  a  higher  plane. 

The  Christian  will  not  willingly  endure  the 
oppression  from  which  he  has  suffered  and  which 
he  accepted  when  he  believed  that  his  nature  was 
inferior  to  that  of  his  ruler.  Give  a  man  knowl- 
edge of  medicine  and  the  old  acceptance  of  sickness 
as  inevitable,  with  its  frequent  result  in  callousness 
or  indifference,  ends  and  an  efficient  sympathy  takes 
its  place.  Add  education,  and  with  it  comes  a 
greater  power  over  nature  and  a  greater  industrial 
efficiency.  The  whole  aspect  of  nature  and  of  life 
is  changed,  the  power  of  the  old  superstitions  has 
been  broken,  the  influence  of  the  medicine-man  and 
priestly  class  has  been  shattered,  and  inevitably  a 
new  day  has  dawned,  a  day  which  will  witness  pro- 
found social  changes.  And  all  this  has  been  set  in 
motion  by  the  simple  proclamation  and  acceptance 
of  the  Gospel. 

Thus,  the  missionary  cannot,  if  he  would,  escape 
being  a  social  reformer,  indirectly  if  not  directly. 
At  the  same  time,  few  missionary  leaders  to-day 
would  limit  the  work  of  the  missionary  so  narrowly. 


42    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

There  prevails  now  a  broader  conception  of  the  aim 
of  the  missionary  than  was  accepted  a  generation  ago. 
It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  this  is  a  return,  though 
on  a  higher  plane,  to  the  purpose  which  actuated 
the  great  leaders  of  the  movement  of  foreign  mis- 
sions a  century  ago.  The  instructions  given  to  the 
first  band  of  missionaries  who  sailed  for  Hawaii 
in  1827  declared  that  the  people  of  the  islands  must 
be  formed  "  into  a  reading,  thinking,  cultivated 
state  of  society  with  all  its  schools  and  seminaries,  its 
arts  and  institutions."  The  social  aim  of  Christian 
missions  was  not  overlooked  then,  even  though  the 
interpretation  of  Christianity  was  individualistic, 
and  the  great  motive  urged  was  the  salvation  of 
individual  souls. 

The  change  in  the  emphasis  at  home  is  nowhere 
better  exhibited  than  in  the  five-fold  programme  of 
the  Men  and  Keligion  Forward  Movement  which 
swept  the  country  in  the  winter  of  1911-1912.  The 
theology  of  the  leaders  was  conservative ;  so  were 
their  views  of  Biblical  questions  ;  but  the  social  note 
was  marked.  For  almost  the  first  time  the  men  of 
the  Church  had  brought  home  to  their  attention  the 
facts  that  social  service,  missions,  and  work  for 
boys  cannot  be  separated  from  the  duty  of  evangel- 
ism and  Bible  study,  and  that  the  effects  of  these 
last  are  not  complete  until  the  message  of  the  Bible 
is  applied  to  men  in  all  their  relations,  or  until  the 
men  who  have  been  saved  by  the  evangelistic  mes- 
sage are  set  to  the  task  of  realizing  in  actual  every- 
day life  the  principles  of  Jesus  Christ.     The  Church 


The  Problem 


43 


has  come  to  see  that  its  duty  does  not  end  with 
changing  the  life  of  individuals ;  that,  in  fact,  this 
result  cannot  be  either  perfect  or  permanent,  so  long 
as  the  environment  is  characterized  by  conditions 
which  are  out  of  harmony  with  the  teachings  of  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount.  Men  now  believe  that 
saved  individuals  must  in  turn  Christianize  society 
and  make  sure  that  customs  and  institutions  help 
men  to  attain  to  the  likeness  of  Christ  Himself. 

This  new  social  note  in  Christianity  at  home  is 
only  an  echo  of  the  social  note  which  the  foreign 
missionaries  were  long  ago  forced  to  sound  because 
of  the  conditions  around  them.  A  recent  writer 
has  strikingly  illustrated  this  change  of  emphasis 
by  a  figure  which  he  himself  admits  is  inaccurate 
in  details.  In  the  old  days,  he  says,  the  world  was 
likened  to  a  sinking  ship,  and  the  work  of  the  mis- 
sionary was  to  rescue  a  few  individuals  and  land 
them  on  the  shore.  The  modern  missionary,  how- 
ever, has  gone  on  board  the  vessel,  has  sounded  the 
water  in  the  hold,  and  has  decided  that  it  is  possible 
to  bring  the  ship  safely  into  port ;  besides  which, 
the  majority  of  the  passengers  resolutely  refuse  to 
leave  the  ship. 

What,  then,  is  the  aim  of  the  missionary  ?  At 
the  Student  Volunteer  Convention  in  1906,  one  of 
the  leading  missionary  secretaries  declared  in  a 
public  address  that  the  missionary  must  preach  and 
propagate  the  following  ideas : — "  The  Gospel  of 
physical  cleanliness,  .  .  of  physical  perfection, 
.     .    of  industry,    .     .    of  a  sane,  safe  and  pure 


44    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

society,  .  .  of  brotherly  love,  .  .  of  good 
works,  .  .  of  intellectual  development,  .  . 
of  justice,  equality,  and  common  rights,  .  .  of 
human  sin,  .  .  and  of  redemption  for  the  entire 
man." *  No  gospel  less  comprehensive  than  this  will 
satisfy  the  needs  of  the  present  day.  The  Church 
has  come  to  realize  that  the  gospel  has  a  message  for 
man  in  all  his  relationships  and  is  not  satisfied  until 
a  man  has  realized  all  his  divine  possibilities.  This 
means  that  the  great  nations  of  the  East  must  be 
thoroughly  Christianized  so  that  the  social  environ- 
ment will  cooperate  with  the  Spirit  of  God  in  trans- 
forming men  and  women  into  the  likeness  of  God. 
More  specifically,  the  primary  work  of  the  mission- 
ary will  always  remain  what  it  has  always  been, 
that  of  transforming  individuals ;  for  no  society 
exists  apart  from  the  individuals  that  compose  it ; 
and  a  nation  can  be  Christian  only  as  the  dominant 
influence  in  it  is  that  of  Christian  men  and  women. 
But  his  work  will  not  stop  there. 

Beyond  this,  the  missionary  seeks  the  naturaliza- 
tion of  Christianity  in  each  mission  field.  This  in- 
cludes the  making  of  Christians,  their  gathering 
into  Christian  churches,  able  to  support,  direct,  and 
propagate  themselves,  and  the  planting  of  all  the 
institutions  which  embody  the  spirit  and  perform 
the  multiform  work  of  Christ  in  that  community. 
There  must  be  a  Christian  educational  system,  a 
Christian  home,  an  industrial  system  based  upon 

1  Rev.  J.  L.  Barton,  D.  D.  Vid.  "  Students  and  the  Modern 
Missionary  Crusade,"  p.  Ill  et  aeq. 


The  Problem  45 

the  principles  of  Christ,  a  government  that  in  all 
its  activities  is  in  harmony  with  the  same  principles, 
and  a  public  opinion  that  will  support  every  move- 
ment for  the  realization  by  each  individual  of  the 
ideals  of  Christ.  To  be  sure,  much  of  this  is  the 
work  of  the  Christian  community  more  than  of  the 
missionary  as  such,  but  it  is  for  the  missionary  to 
lay  the  foundations  and  to  make  all  his  work  count 
in  this  direction.  The  mission  educational  system 
can  be  used  to  train  Christians  for  leadership  in 
every  phase  of  activity,  educational,  industrial, 
ethical,  even  political.  The  missionary  can  stand 
for  Christian  ideals  at  all  times,  and  can  inspire 
and  guide  in  the  Christianizing  of  society  without 
neglecting  his  task  of  reaching  individuals. 

In  all  this  he  can  have  a  realizing  sense  that, 
apart  from  the  influence  of  Christianity,  all  these 
social  movements  will  fail  of  their  purpose.  As 
one  examines  more  closely  these  new  factors  which 
have  entered  into  the  development  of  the  Orient, 
one  is  struck  by  a  lack.  The  Western  influence, 
apart  from  the  missionary,  is  largely  materialistic, 
agnostic,  or  even  anti-religious.  The  new  educa- 
tion, except  as  it  is  Christian,  is  weaning  the  future 
leaders  of  Japan,  China,  and  India  from  their  old 
superstitious  beliefs.  They  are  losing  their  old 
standards,  the  old  sanctions  of  conduct,  but  they 
are  getting  nothing  in  their  place.  Leaders  of 
Japan  are  alarmed  at  the  moral  tone  of  their  coun- 
try. The  new  industry  is  for  the  most  part  actu- 
ated by  the  spirit  of  materialism,  and  there  is 


46    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

danger  that,  without  the  restraints  of  a  Christian 
public  sentiment  and  the  Christian  sense  of  the 
value  of  the  individual,  the  worst  instances  of  ex- 
ploitation the  world  has  yet  known  will  be  wit- 
nessed. A  godless  industry  may  prove  a  curse  to 
East  and  West  alike. 

Likewise,  in  the  realm  of  social  and  political 
reform  there  are  not  enough  leaders  of  absolute 
integrity  and  unselfishness,  men  of  broad  vision 
and  utter  devotion  to  the  best  interests  of  all  the 
people  and  not  of  a  single  class  or  section.  These  na- 
tions are  waiting  for  the  appearance  of  a  new  type, 
a  type  which  can  be  produced  only  by  Christianity 
with  its  adequate  doctrines  of  God,  sin,  and  salva- 
tion ;  with  Christ  as  the  ideal  of  the  new  manhood 
of  the  East ;  and  with  the  mightiest  dynamic  in 
the  world,  which  can  send  men  out  into  the  service 
of  others  in  the  spirit  of  Jesus.  Mere  reform  is 
not  enough.  Patriotism  will  never  answer.  The 
ethnic  religions  have  had  free  reign  for  centuries 
and  have  produced  or  tolerated  the  evils  from 
which  relief  is  now  sought.  It  is  for  the  followers 
of  Christ  to  prove  that  the  religion  of  the  Carpen- 
ter of  Nazareth,  of  the  risen  and  glorified  Redeemer 
is  able  to  cope  with  all  these  social  evils  and  trans- 
form the  nations  of  the  East  and  the  West  alike 
into  the  Kingdom  of  His  Father  and  their  Father. 


n 

PEOGEESS  IN  THE  EEMOVAL  OF  IGNO- 
EANCE,  INEFFICIENCY,  AND  POVEETY 

THE  degree  to  which  men  have  a  command 
over  the  forces  of  nature  determines  the 
scale  of  their  living,  and  to  a  large  degree 
the  possibilities  of  their  social  development.  It  is  a 
truism  to  say  that  every  material  thing  men  pos- 
sess they  have  obtained  from  nature.  Men  have 
never  been  able  to  create  a  particle  of  matter. 
They  can  do  two  things.  They  can  make  the  mat- 
ter more  useful  by  changing  its  form,  and  they 
can  induce  nature  to  produce  what  they  need  in 
the  way  of  food  and  clothing.  Every  one  knows 
this,  and  yet  men  take  it  so  much  for  granted  that 
they  tend  to  overlook  its  significance. 

For  instance,  in  these  days  of  social  and  indus- 
trial betterment  people  are  apt  to  assume  the  exist- 
ence of  unlimited  wealth  for  improving  conditions. 
Cities  issue  bonds  in  large  amounts  in  payment  for 
great  public  works  and  improvements,  but  they 
sometimes  appear  to  forget  that  these  must  be  paid 
for  out  of  what  men  extract  from  nature  or  manu- 
facture out  of  the  materials  which  others  extract  or 
produce.  Only  a  nation  that  is  rich  in  the  products 
of  its  soil  or  its  toil  can  afford  those  luxuries  or 
necessities  which  the  apostles  of  social  betterment 

47 


48    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

demand.  Likewise,  labour  leaders,  in  their  attempt 
to  secure  a  larger  share  of  the  products  of  their 
toil,  cannot  safely  reduce  the  total  output.  When- 
ever they  do,  they  forget  that  their  income  depends 
just  as  truly  upon  how  much  there  is  to  divide  as 
it  does  upon  what  proportions  shall  go  to  capital 
and  labour.  Keal  industrial  progress  is  assured  only 
when  the  amount  of  product  per  unit  of  labour  is 
increasing. 

Because  of  the  natural  richness  of  our  soil  and 
the  efficiency  of  our  machinery  and  labour,  we  in 
the  United  States  are  comparatively  free  from  the 
restraints  imposed  upon  a  people  by  lack  of  a  com- 
mand over  nature.  Not  so  in  most  mission  lands. 
Even  a  rich  country  like  Japan  finds  itself  almost 
staggering  under  the  burdens  it  has  assumed  by 
entering  fully  into  partnership  with  the  great  na- 
tions. The  Japanese  are  unable  to  develop  their 
school  system  fast  enough  to  meet  the  increasing 
demand  for  higher  education.  In  matters  of  sani- 
tation, housing,  and  the  like  they  are  hampered 
by  the  fact  that  their  present  command  over  nature 
is  not  sufficient  to  make  possible  the  realization  of 
their  schemes  for  social  development. 

India  also  illustrates  the  same  point.  The  peo- 
ple cannot  pay  increased  taxes  because  of  their 
lack  of  industrial  efficiency,  which  limits  the  prod- 
uct out  of  which  they  have  to  support  their  fam- 
ilies and  pay  their  taxes.  With  the  present  taxes, 
the  government  cannot  put  into  effect  those  com- 
prehensive schemes  for  universal,  free,  and  com- 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     49 

pulsory  education  in  which  the  leaders  see  the  hope 
of  realizing  their  dreams  of  self-government. 

Again,  take  the  Christian  community  in  these 
countries.  All  missionary  leaders  desire  and  work 
for  the  day  when  the  Christians  shall  be  able  to 
support  their  churches  and  schools  and  all  the 
philanthropic  institutions  that  go  with  a  Christian 
civilization.  Even  if  all  the  Christians  gave  as 
much  as  they  could  reasonably  be  expected  to 
give, — and  in  general  they  come  nearer  to  this 
standard  than  the  Christians  in  the  home-lands, — 
it  would  yet  be  a  long  time  in  many  of  these 
communities  before  they  could  be  self-supporting 
on  any  adequate  scale.  A  few  years  ago  a  secre- 
tary of  a  great  mission  board  was  making  his  first 
tour  of  the  field.  He  was  in  India  and  was  visit- 
ing a  group  of  Christians  who  had  been  gathered 
out  of  a  community  of  outcastes.  As  he  saw  their 
homes,  their  manner  of  life,  and  their  crude  in- 
dustries, he  exclaimed,  "  Now  I  understand  why 
there  is  not  more  self-support  in  this  mission." 
It  was  simply  impossible  for  these  men,  with  their 
slight  power  over  natural  forces,  to  produce  much 
more  than  enough  to  keep  soul  and  body  together. 
Only  as  their  economic  efficiency  can  be  increased, 
can  they  rise  gradually  to  a  greater  measure  of  self- 
support.  The  difficulty  in  such  cases  is  not  so  much 
moral  as  it  is  industrial. 

These  illustrations  make  clear  the  fact  that  the 
realization  of  the  social  ideals  which  the  Christian 
desires  for  the  peoples  of  mission  lands  must  rest 


50    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

upon  a  sound  economic  basis,  and  that  apart  from 
economic  progress  there  can  be  relatively  too  little 
progress  in  the  higher  realms.  Hence,  progress  in 
the  removal  of  ignorance,  inefficiency,  and  poverty 
is  logically  the  first  step  towards  an  improvement 
of  social  conditions.  This  is  not  to  maintain,  how- 
ever, that  this  economic  progress  must,  in  point  of 
time,  precede  ethical  and  spiritual  progress.  It  is 
often  the  case  that,  only  as  man's  whole  nature  is 
touched  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  is  he  aroused  to  de- 
sire and  to  seek  those  material  aids  by  which  he 
can  realize  the  Christian  ideals  for  his  daily  life. 

From  this  point  of  view  one  sees  the  significance 
of  those  elements  in  the  situation  confronting  the 
missionary  to  which  attention  has  already  been 
called,  namely,  ignorance,  inefficiency,  and  poverty. 

Taking  the  mission  field  as  a  whole,  the  mission- 
ary, when  he  entered  upon  his  work,  found  himself 
throwing  in  his  lot  with  people  who  were  extremely 
poor.  Americans  think  they  know  something  of 
poverty  at  home.  People  here  and  in  England 
speak  of  "  the  submerged  tenth "  and  there  are 
other  tenths  of  the  population  whose  income  is  be- 
low what  we  regard  as  a  proper  minimum  living 
wage.  Abroad,  however,  in  many  a  mission  field 
one  might  more  justly  have  spoken  of  the  sub- 
merged nine-tenths,  or  even  ninety-nine-one-hun- 
dredths,  for  the  amount  of  wealth  per  capita  was  far 
below  that  of  a  progressive  industrial  country  in 
the  West,  and  the  wealth  that  existed  was  in  the 
hands  of  a  very  small  fraction  of  the  population. 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     51 

Among  the  causes  of  this  poverty  may  be  specified 
ignorance,  with  its  resulting  inefficiency,  and  the 
lack  of  medical  and  sanitary  science,  which  in- 
creased needlessly  the  burdens  of  sickness,  physical 
incapacitation,  and  premature  death.  Among  other 
contributing  causes  were  unjust  government,  inse- 
curity of  life  and  property,  and,  in  certain  coun- 
tries, the  existence  of  a  large  class  of  dependents, 
who  lived  out  of  the  offerings  of  the  rest  of  the 
population,  although  most  of  these  had  not  enough 
for  their  own  support  upon  a  proper  standard  of 
living.  In  India  even  to-day  this  class  is  numbered 
by  the  million. 

What  has  the  Christian  missionary  done  to  re- 
move these  evils  ?  It  is  only  fair  to  say  that,  ex- 
cept in  the  limited  field  of  industrial  training,  he 
has  not  aimed  to  increase  the  people's  command 
over  nature.  He  has  taken  up  medical  work  in 
order  to  relieve  suffering  and  gain  access  for  the 
Gospel.  He  has  engaged  in  educational  work,  both 
for  the  sake  of  getting  a  hearing  for  the  Gospel, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  securing  an  intelligent  Chris- 
tian community,  capable  of  reading  and  under- 
standing the  Bible.  Other  reasons  have  been  largely 
incidental,  but  the  result  of  the  work  has  been  to 
make  a  real  contribution  to  social  progress. 

The  modern  missionary  has  been  an  educational 
pioneer.  In  most  countries  there  was  little  educa- 
tion before  the  advent  of  the  missionary,  and  this, 
except  in  China,  was  not  usually  open  to  the  people 


52    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

as  a  whole,  but  was  the  prerogative  of  certain 
classes,  social  or  religious.  The  content  of  the  edu- 
cation had  no  relation  to  modern  thought  and  did 
not  prepare  the  scholar  for  leadership  in  the  indus- 
trial sphere  or  fit  him  to  guide  his  people  in  com- 
petition with  the  Western  nations.  There  was  no 
science  and  no  history  worthy  of  the  name.  The 
students  became  familiar  with  their  religious  books, 
or,  in  a  country  like  China,  with  their  classical  lit- 
erature. They  cultivated  a  certain  literary  style. 
In  its  day  this  education  was  the  best  these  peoples 
could  devise  and  fitted  the  student  for  life,  but  it 
had  no  relation  to  present-day  problems. 

When  William  Carey  entered  India  and  opened 
the  modern  missionary  epoch,  one  of  his  first 
thoughts  was  to  begin  the  work  of  Christian  educa- 
tion, and  to-day  there  still  stands  at  Serampore  one 
of  the  most  impressive  educational  buildings  ever 
erected  for  the  spreading  of  a  knowledge  of  Chris- 
tian truth.  From  that  day  to  this,  the  missionary 
has  been  an  educator,  and  as  a  rule  the  missions 
which  have  the  greatest  results  to  show  for  their 
work  have  made  large  use  of  the  Christian  school  as 
a  means  of  Christianizing  the  nations.  The  work 
of  Christian  education  has  grown  from  the  humblest 
beginnings  until  to-day  it  numbers  its  pupils  by  the 
million,  the  grand  total  being  more  than  1,520,000. 
The  sun  never  sets  upon  these  students,  Christian 
and  non-Christian,  boys  and  girls,  children  and 
adults,  of  all  colours  and  social  position,  who  study 
in  a  variety  of  buildings,  ranging  all  the  way  from 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     53 

thatched-roof  huts,  with  or  without  sides,  or  thatch 
stockades,  up  through  simple  native  buildings  to 
structures  that  are  as  impressive  as  most  that  our 
colleges  and  universities  at  home  possess. 

The  grade  of  these  schools  ranges  from  kinder- 
gartens and  the  most  elementary  village  schools  up 
to  colleges  and  advanced  theological,  medical,  and 
technical  institutions.  Even  as  a  mere  matter  of 
statistics,  the  mission  education  makes  an  impress- 
ive showing.  The  latest  statistics,  contained  in 
the  "  World  Atlas  of  Christian  Missions,"  "  give  the 
following  facts : 

There  are  86  universities  or  colleges,  with  8,628 
pupils  in  college  classes.  While  the  grade  of  these 
classes  is  in  most  instances  below  that  of  our  col- 
leges, yet  it  means  that  they  are  offering  more 
than  high  school  work  and  are  relatively  as  ad- 
vanced as  our  colleges  were  a  generation  or  so  ago. 

Of  theological  and  normal  schools  and  training 
classes  there  are  522,  with  12,761  pupils,  who  are 
in  training  for  immediate  leadership  in  the  work 
of  the  Church  and  the  Christian  community. 

There  are  1,714  boarding  and  high  schools,  with 
an  enrollment  of  166,447,  from  which  number  will 
be  selected  those  who  will  pass  on  to  college  or 
professional  school. 

There  are  292  industrial  institutions  or  classes, 
with  an  enrollment  of  16,292.  These  last  figures 
are  impressive  but  are  smaller  than  they  should  be. 
It  should  be  added,  however,  that  they  do  not  in- 

1  Dennis,  et  cd.,  "  World  Atlas  of  Christian  Missions,"  p.  84. 


54    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

elude  the  ordinary  schools  that  provide  industrial 
courses  as  a  part  of  their  regular  curriculum. 

Of  elementary  and  village  schools  there  are 
30,185,  instructing  1,290,357  pupils.  This  number 
of  pupils  is  practically  the  same  as  the  school  en- 
rollment for  the  state  of  Pennsylvania.  These 
schools  lay  the  foundations  for  all  the  higher  edu- 
cational work,  and  in  some  countries  they  furnish 
nearly  all  the  missionary  education. 

The  remaining  institutions  may  be  tabulated  as 
follows : 


Kindergartens    .    .    . 


.  115. 
.  271  . 
.  25. 
.111  . 

.    98. 


5,597  pnpils 


20,383  " 

844  " 

830  " 

663  " 


Orphanages 

Institutions  for  blind  and  deaf 

Medical  schools 

Nurses'  training  schools  .    .   . 

This  makes  a  grand  total  of  33,419  schools  and 
1,522,802  pupils.  By  way  of  comparison,  it  may 
be  stated  that  in  the  New  England  States  and  New 
Jersey,  according  to  the  census  of  1910,  the  number 
attending  school  was  1,652,506. 

The  distribution  of  these  schools  is  significant  as 
indicating  where  the  emphasis  has  been  put  on 
education  and  where  the  higher  education  has  been 
furthest  developed.  The  mission  fields  that  con- 
tain the  largest  number  of  colleges  and  universities 
are  as  follows : 

India 37,  with  4.982  students 

China 18,     "        919 

Turkey 11,     "     1,419        " 

Japan  (including  Korea)  ....    8,     "       517        " 
Other  countries 12,     "       791        " 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     55 

India  has  43%  of  the  colleges  and  58%  of  the 
college  students. 

Of  the  theological  and  similar  classes,  the  dis- 
tribution is  wider,  and  every  mission  field,  with 
but  few  exceptions,  has  at  least  a  few  such  classes. 
Here  again  we  find  India  in  the  lead,  and  the 
countries  which  contain  the  largest  numbers  are  as 
follows : 

India      141,  with  3,755  pupils 

China 129,     "    2,544      " 

Africa  (with  Madagascar)      .    .    .  116,     "     2,747      " 
Japan 42,     "     1,479      " 

It  will  be  noted  that  Africa  has  more  pupils  in  such 
classes  than  any  other  field  save  India. 

The  distribution  of  boarding  and  high  schools  is 
similar  to  that  of  these  professional  schools. 

India  is  the  great  home  of  mission  industrial 
work,  containing,  as  it  does,  148  out  of  292  schools, 
or  50  %,  with  8,999  pupils,  while  Africa  has  70  of 
the  remainder,  with  3,485  pupils. 

A  somewhat  similar  situation  is  revealed  in  the 
matter  of  elementary  education,  although,  like  the 
theological  and  normal  school,  the  day  school  is 
found  in  every  mission  field.  Japan  proper  drops 
out  here,  because  the  government  has  practically 
the  monopoly  of  elementary  education,  except  for 
night  schools  or  special  classes.  India  has  11,503 
of  the  30,185  schools,  or  34%,  containing  361,726 
of  the  1,290,357  pupils,  or  28%.  Africa  comes  next 
with  8,271  schools,  or  27%,  with  447,196  pupils, 
or  35%. 


56    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

In  the  matters  of  support  and  influence  these 
mission  schools  differ  from  country  to  country. 
The  Indian  government  gives  grants-in-aid  to  all 
schools  that  conform  to  the  prescribed  standards, 
and  these  grants,  added  to  the  fees  of  the  pupils, 
are  almost,  if  not  quite,  sufficient  to  support  the 
schools,  except  for  the  salaries  of  the  missionaries. 
Most  mission  schools  in  India  are  thus  aided  or 
supported.  A  similar  system  prevails  in  parts  of 
South  Africa  and  in  a  few  other  British  colonies. 
On  the  other  hand,  no  government  grants  are 
available  in  Turkey,  China,  or  Japan ;  and  full 
recognition  has  not  yet  been  accorded  to  mission 
schools  in  the  two  great  nations  of  Eastern  Asia. 
In  fact,  Japan  expressly  refuses  to  accord  full 
recognition  to  any  school  that  gives  religious  in- 
struction within  the  school  buildings,  even  outside 
of  school  hours.  In  some  parts  of  Africa,  for 
example  in  Uganda  and  Khodesia,  the  mission 
schools  have  a  practical  monopoly  of  the  field. 
The  same  has  been  true  of  Turkey,  for  the  mission 
schools  have  been  so  far  superior  to  other  schools 
that  they  have  dominated  the  situation. 

In  India,  the  mission  schools  are  now  meeting 
the  competition  of  an  increasing  number  of  non- 
Christian  and  government  schools,  but  they  still 
set  the  standard  in  the  matter  of  character  building 
and  moral  tone,  and  many  of  them  are  without 
peers  in  efficiency. 

In  China,  the  Christian  school  for  a  long  time 
had  a  monopoly.     Eecently,  however,  the  govern- 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     57 

ment  and  wealthy  individuals  have  been  starting 
new  schools  and  the  enrollment  in  these  already 
greatly  exceeds  that  in  mission  schools.  In  one 
province,  where  Christian  education  is  well  organ- 
ized and  the  government  education  has  existed  for 
but  five  years,  the  enrollment  in  the  government 
schools  is  one  hundred  times  that  in  mission  schools. 
Peking  alone  has  two  hundred  schools  with  seven- 
teen thousand  pupils,  while  the  total  enrollment  in 
the  mission  schools  of  the  whole  nation  is  less  than 
eighty  thousand.  As  yet  the  mission  schools  are 
superior  to  all  but  a  few  of  the  best  government 
schools  in  pedagogical  standards  if  not  in  equip- 
ment, but  this  lead  will  be  lost  unless  they  are 
further  developed. 

In  Japan,  the  Christian  schools  exerted  a  great 
influence  upon  the  generation  now  in  active  life 
because  of  the  high  quality  of  their  teaching  and 
the  superior  results  obtained.  Now,  however,  they 
are  relatively  weaker  than  they  were.  The  ab- 
sence of  a  Christian  university  and  the  government 
regulations  make  it  impossible  for  the  Christian 
school  to  attract  or  retain  the  most  ambitious 
pupils.  Christian  education  was  never  more  needed 
in  Japan  than  at  the  present  time,  but  it  will  be 
necessary  either  to  move  forward  or  to  move  out. 
A  system  of  inferior  Christian  schools  means  that 
Christianity  itself  is  brought  under  reproach. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  exaggerate  the  influence  of 
these  Christian  schools,  and  especially  of  the  higher 
education  furnished  by  the  Christians  of  the  West  to 


58    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

Turkey,  Japan,  and  India.  Kobert  College  in  Con- 
stantinople, the  Syrian  Protestant  College  at  Beirut, 
and  the  other  less  famous  Christian  colleges  in  Asia 
Minor,  have  had  a  large  share  in  making  the  new- 
Turkey  a  possibility.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
Kobert  College  trained  the  leaders  who  made  the 
Bulgarians'  dream  of  freedom  a  reality.  The  lead- 
ers of  the  convention  which  framed  the  Bulgarian 
constitution  were  with  few  exceptions  graduates  of 
Robert  College.  Resolutions  of  thanks  were  even 
passed  expressing  appreciation  of  what  Robert  Col- 
lege had  done  for  Bulgaria.  This  was  in  1879. 
During  many  years,  the  majority  of  the  college 
students  were  from  Bulgaria.  None  of  the  leaders 
of  the  Young  Turk  party  were  trained  in  Christian 
schools,  but,  as  has  been  mentioned,  some  of  the 
leaders  have  not  hesitated  to  declare  that  they 
would  never  have  dared  to  undertake  at  that  time 
the  regeneration  of  Turkey,  had  they  not  known 
that  there  were  scattered  throughout  the  empire 
hundreds  of  young  men  who  had  been  so  trained  in 
these  Christian  institutions  as  to  understand  the 
meaning  and  responsibility  of  constitutional  liberty. 
The  graduates  of  the  college  at  Beirut  and  of  its 
younger  sister  at  Assiut,  Egypt,  are  found  in  re- 
sponsible positions,  political,  educational,  and  com- 
mercial, all  through  the  Levant,  and  they  exem- 
plify those  high  ideals  of  character  and  service 
which  they  learned  in  college. 

Those  in  a  position  to  know  declare  that  no  force 
has  had  a  greater  Christianizing  influence  in  Japan 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     59 

than  the  education  conducted  by  the  missionary. 
The  literature  of  Japan  has  within  a  generation  be- 
come Christian  in  its  ideals  and  atmosphere.  The 
Christian  schools  have  produced  a  well-known 
novelist,  Tokutomi  Kenjiro,  a  poet,  Shimasaki 
Toson,  and  writers  on  history  and  education. 
Twenty  or  more  of  the  leading  journals  of  the  em- 
pire, including  some  of  the  most  influential,  have 
editors  who  were  trained  in  Christian  schools. 
Magazine  literature  in  Japan  was  started  by  grad- 
uates of  these  schools.  From  them  have  come  also 
the  holders  of  important  posts  under  the  govern- 
ment as  well  as  the  leaders  of  the  Japanese  Chris- 
tian community.  No  one  who  has  read  the  re- 
markable tribute  to  the  influence  of  Christianity  in 
Japan  that  was  written  by  a  non-Christian  Japanese 
and  published  in  The  Century  Magazine  for  Sep- 
tember, 191 1,1  needs  to  be  reminded  of  the  great 
impression  made  upon  Japan  by  that  pioneer  of 
Christian  education,  Joseph  Neesima,  and  of  the  in- 
fluence exerted  by  his  own  work  and  that  of  his 
successors.  The  Doshisha  University,  founded  by 
Neesima,  reported  a  few  years  since  two  thousand 
baptisms  among  its  six  thousand  students.  Four 
other  schools   estimated  their  baptisms  as  about 

1  "  Niishima  and  his  fellow- workers,  notably  Prof.  J.  D. 
Davis,  upon  whom  Mr.  Niishima  was  wont  to  lean  as  upon  the 
very  staff  of  life,  gave  Japan  a  new  national  ideal.  No  achieve- 
ments of  man  can  be  greater,  more  ambitious  than  this.  In  this 
the  missionaries  succeeded.  Here,  then,  is  the  great  fruit  of 
Christian  missions  in  Japan." — Adachi  Kinnosuke,  "Century 
Magazine,1''  September,  1911,  p.  747. 


60    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

twelve  hundred.  Five  years  ago  statistics  showed 
that  of  the  actual  graduates  of  the  middle  or 
higher  Christian  schools,  nearly  one-half  were  dead, 
unknown,  or  still  studying,  that  Christian  work  had 
claimed  three  per  cent,  of  the  total  number,  teach- 
ing twelve  per  cent.,  official  life  five  per  cent.,  and 
business,  including  farming,  etc.,  the  remainder, 
twenty-eight  per  cent. 

Turning  to  India,  one  naturally  thinks  of  a  noted 
college  which  has  often  been  severely  criticized  be- 
cause of  its  alleged  lack  of  a  positive  Christian  in- 
fluence. Yet  a  leading  missionary  of  that  district, 
connected  with  another  mission  and  passionately 
devoted  to  evangelistic  work,  declared  to  me  that  he 
believed  this  same  college,  the  Madras  Christian  Col- 
lege, was  to-day  one  of  the  mightiest  forces  for  the 
Christianization  of  South  India.  Much  progressive 
legislation  has  been  put  through  abolishing  or  miti- 
gating social  evils,  and  in  these  efforts,  which  aim 
at  approaching  more  nearly  to  Christian  ideals  in 
social  life,  the  leaders  have  been  the  graduates  of 
this  college,  men  who  had  never  become  avowed 
Christians  but  who  had  nevertheless  imbibed  the 
principles  of  Jesus  and  had  applied  them  to  the 
problems  of  their  life.  The  best  of  the  colleges  in 
India  are  equal  or  even  superior  to  the  best  govern- 
ment institutions  from  the  educational  point  of 
view,  and  in  moral  influence  they  are  far  superior. 
Because  of  this  fact,  the  sons  of  an  Indian  gentle- 
man, who  was  officially  connected  with  a  govern- 
ment institution,  were  a  few  years  ago  attending  a 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     61 

Christian  college  in  North  India.  The  father  so 
highly  valued  the  ethical  influence  of  this  Chris- 
tian school  that  he  preferred  to  run  the  risk  of 
having  his  boys  become  interested  in  Christianity 
rather  than  send  them  to  a  non-religious  government 
school.  The  Christian  colleges  in  such  great  centres 
as  Calcutta,  Bombay,  Madras,  Lahore,  and  Alla- 
habad,— to  mention  only  a  few, — are  institutions  in 
which  every  non-Christian  student  learns  something 
of  the  Bible  and  of  the  teachings  of  Christianity. 
What  is  of  equal  importance,  he  studies  each  sub- 
ject from  a  Christian  view-point,  and  learns  how  the 
Christian  regards  the  world,  and  the  problems  of 
thought  and  life.  Like  the  government  school,  its 
teaching  is  destructive  of  old  superstitions,  but, 
unlike  the  non-Christian  school,  it  does  not  stop 
there,  but  builds  constructively  upon  a  Christian 
basis,  thus  leaving  the  student  with  an  intelligent, 
sane,  and  sound  view  of  life. 

The  influence  of  the  lower  education  has  been 
equally  marked.  It  is  a  matter  of  observation  that 
by  education  and  the  impulse  upward  that  comes 
from  Christianity,  the  Christian  communities  at  once 
begin  to  move  up  in  the  scale  of  intelligence  and 
self-respect,  and  their  ideals  and  manner  of  life  im- 
prove. Nothing  has  made  a  deeper  impression 
upon  India  than  the  utter  revolution  which  Chris- 
tianity has  wrought  in  the  lives  of  the  outcastes  who 
have  been  regarded  by  Hindus  as  hardly  human 
and  as  incapable  of  being  raised  to  anything  ap- 
proaching equality  with  the  caste  people.     Not  far 


62    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

from  Cape  Comorin,  there  is  a  professor  in  a  Chris- 
tian college,  who,  in  spite  of  his  humble  origin,  is 
an  educational  leader  in  his  section  and  who  is  so 
highly  respected  by  the  Brahmans  that  a  few  years 
ago,  when  I  was  in  India,  one  of  these  men  put  his 
wife  in  charge  of  this  Christian  gentleman  for  a 
short  railway  journey.  The  first  Indian  bishop  un- 
der the  Church  of  England  comes  from  a  family  of 
similar  origin.  Teachers  from  the  lowest  castes 
are  daily  teaching  classes  that  include  pupils  of  all 
castes  from  Brahmans  down. 

The  effect  of  all  this  upon  the  thought  of  Indian 
leaders  has  been  profound.  An  educated  gentle- 
man is  reported  as  having  said  publicly  at  Allaha- 
bad, "  I  am  a  Brahman  of  the  Brahmans  and  be- 
long, as  you  all  know,  to  the  most  orthodox  school ; 
and  I  am  an  Indian  and  love  my  country,  and  I 
must  confess  that  the  way  in  which  Christianity 
has  raised  the  pariahs  of  Madras  is  beyond  all 
praise  and  puts  me  to  shame  as  a  Hindu."  A  lead- 
ing nationalist  is  thus  quoted  :  "  After  all,  when  it 
comes  to  practice,  Christianity  alone  is  effecting 
what  we  nationalists  are  crying  out  for,  namely, 
the  elevation  of  the  masses."  *  Some  Hindus  have 
even  advised  the  depressed  classes  to  embrace  Chris- 
tianity as  the  only  means  of  escaping  from  the  dis- 
abilities inherent  in  orthodox  Hinduism. 

The  government  of  India  does  not  prefer  to  em- 
ploy Christian  teachers,  but  the  schools  for  girls 
have  a  large  proportion  of  Christian  women  on 
1  Edin.  Conf.  Rep.,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  258. 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     63 

their  teaching  staff,  simply  for  the  reason  that  the 
Christian  community  has  women  capable  of  teach- 
ing while  the  non-Christian  community  has  not. 

The  influence  of  the  Christian  school  in  India 
has  been  a  real  contribution  to  social  progress.  It 
has  raised  the  status  of  large  numbers  of  individ- 
uals, who  have  found  in  Christianity  the  only 
avenue  for  realizing  their  inborn  capacities.  At  the 
same  time,  it  has  demonstrated  to  the  Hindus  the 
possibility  of  raising  the  submerged  classes  and  has 
shamed  them  into  emulating  Christian  efforts. 

Similar  accounts  may  be  given  of  the  results  in 
Africa.  In  British  South  Africa  there  has  been  a 
considerable  agitation  by  colonists  who  claimed 
that  mission-trained  natives  were  filling  jails  and 
were  a  menace  to  society.  At  least,  they  were 
spoiled  for  the  employer.  A  few  years  since  two 
careful  investigations  were  made.  It  was  discov- 
ered that  in  Johannesburg  every  native  employee 
who  was  occupying  a  position  of  trust  or  was  earn- 
ing an  unusually  large  salary  had  been  educated  in 
a  mission  school.  In  1906,  Rev.  A.  E.  Le  Eoy  of 
Amanzimtote  Seminary,  in  Natal,  carefully  investi- 
gated the  records  of  the  young  men  who  had  been 
connected  with  this  school,  even  though  they  might 
have  remained  but  a  few  weeks.  Of  the  more  than 
eight  hundred  pupils  whose  record  could  be  traced, 
but  eleven  had  ever  been  convicted  of  crime.  Ten 
per  cent,  of  the  total  number  had  turned  out  badly, 
twenty  per  cent,  were  good  workmen  merely,  but 
not  Christians,  and  seventy  per  cent,  were  reliable 


64    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

men,  a  credit  to  school  and  to  church.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  in  these  numbers  were  included 
those  who  had  not  attended  the  school  long  enough 
to  receive  a  lasting  impression.  In  particular,  Mr. 
Le  Koy  investigated  each  former  pupil  employed 
at  that  time  in  Durban  and  Johannesburg.  Of  the 
forty-seven  in  Durban,  their  employers  gave  un- 
qualified approval  to  forty-four  and  not  one  com- 
plained that  the  boys  were  disrespectful,  which  is 
the  stock  charge.  In  Johannesburg,  which  is  five 
hundred  miles  away  from  their  homes,  the  boys 
had  a  similar  record.  Of  forty-four  boys,  thirty- 
eight  merited  unqualified  approval  ;  three  were 
satisfactory  though  they  showed  symptoms  of  lazi- 
ness, and  two  were  such  though  they  occasionally 
indulged  too  freely  in  native  beer ;  only  one  had 
been  discharged  and  that  for  drunkenness.  In  not 
a  single  case  was  education  charged  with  "  spoil- 
ing "  a  good  workman.1 

The  educated  Africans  are  more  than  good  work- 
men ;  many  of  them  become  useful  preachers, 
teachers,  and  leaders  of  their  race.  One  in  Natal 
has  even  secured  government  recognition  for  his 
school.  Even  those  who  do  not  go  into  the  so- 
called  Christian  professions  oftentimes  become 
earnest  Christian  workers.  For  instance,  a  few 
young  men  attended  a  Christian  night  school  while 
working  in  a  mine  at  Johannesburg.  When  they 
returned  to  their  homes,  they  gathered  their  people 
around  them,  opened  schools,  organized  churches, 
1  Le  Roy,  Rev.  A.  E.,  "  The  Educated  Native." 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     65 

and  started  the  people  of  the  vicinity  upon  the  up- 
ward path  intellectually,  religiously,  and  socially. 
This  is  typical. 

The  missionary  has  also  faced  manfully  the  prob- 
lem of  industrial  inefficiency,  and  by  means  of  in- 
dustrial training  he  has  endeavoured  to  make  pos- 
sible a  higher  standard  of  living  in  the  Christian 
community.  In  the  early  days,  many  pioneer 
missionaries  believed  that  industrial  development 
should  go  on  side  by  side  with  the  preaching  of  the 
Gospel.  The  missions  to  the  North  American  In- 
dians were  largely  industrial,  and  the  first  mission- 
aries went  to  Hawaii  with  the  idea  of  following 
that  model.  However,  the  present  industrial  work 
is  of  more  recent  origin.  The  most  uniformly  suc- 
cessful industrial  undertakings  conducted  by  mis- 
sionaries have  been  those  designed  to  make  orphans 
and  others,  rendered  destitute  by  famine  or  massacre, 
self-supporting.  In  Turkey  and  India,  the  thou- 
sands of  people  whom  the  missionaries  have  rescued 
from  starvation  have  thus  helped  to  support  them- 
selves, and  at  the  same  time  have  been  trained  for 
independent  and  productive  lives. 

Somewhat  similar  in  its  origin  is  the  best  known 
industrial  mission  work,  namely,  that  of  the  Basel 
Mission  in  South  India.  In  the  early  days  of  this 
mission,  which  was  opened  at  Mangalore  in  1834, 
the  early  converts  were  mostly  from  castes  whose 
occupations  were  either  incompatible  with  a  Chris- 
tian profession  or  dangerous  for  the  converts  and 


66    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

the  Church.  It  was  a  question  of  keeping  them 
from  acknowledging  their  faith  in  Christ,  permit- 
ting them  to  starve,  or  caring  for  them.  The  mis- 
sion naturally  chose  the  last,  and  was  thus  driven  into 
devising  means  of  making  these  Christians  self-sup- 
porting. This  was  done  by  starting  mission  indus- 
tries in  which  the  Christians  were  set  to  work.  The 
Basel  Mission  is  one  of  the  strong  missions  in  south- 
west India  and  carries  on  all  branches  of  missionary 
work.  Its  industrial  centres  are  three :  Mangalore, 
Cannanore  and  Calicut,  with  branch  factories  in 
seven  other  places.  Here  they  conduct  a  large  press. 
They  also  manufacture  tiles  for  floors  and  roofs, 
make  underclothing,  towels,  and  the  like,  weave 
cloth,  and  make  some  of  it  up  into  garments. 
Master-weaver  Haller,  of  Mangalore,  invented  the 
colour  khaki  and  khaki  cloth  was  first  made  in  this 
mission.  Coir-weaving,  mat-making,  knitting  and 
embroidery  are  combined  with  some  of  the  other 
factories.  Since  1874  there  has  been  an  engineer- 
ing workshop  at  Mangalore.1 

Formerly,  there  was  also  a  carpentering  and 
furniture  shop,  but  this  has  now  been  taken  over  by 
an  Indian  Christian.  Commercially  these  industries 
have  been  very  successful ;  the  goods  are  of  the 
highest  quality  and  are  sold  all  over  India  and 
abroad,  and  the  profits  are  used  for  the  furtherance 
of  missionary  work.  The  workmen  are  able  to  sup- 
port themselves  in  comfort  and  to  work  under 
Christian  conditions.  There  are  dangers  in  such 
1  Int.  Rev.  of  Missions,  January,  1913,  p.  165  et  seq. 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     67 

work,  chiefly  lest  the  mingling  of  business  and 
evangelism  shall  hamper  the  spiritual  influence  of 
the  mission,  and  lest  the  tendency  shall  be  to  in- 
duce individuals  to  profess  Christianity  for  the 
sake  of  securing  a  lucrative  position.  Even  those 
who  for  these  reasons  believe  that  only  neces- 
sity will  justify  the  starting  of  mission  industries 
have  to  admit,  however,  that  this  Basel  work  has 
made  a  real  contribution  to  economic  progress 
and  to  the  dignifying  of  labour  as  worthy  of  a 
Christian. 

Three  other  main  lines  of  industrial  work  are  be- 
ing carried  on  in  India  with  the  approval  and  as- 
sistance of  the  government.  The  first  of  these  is 
the  maintenance  of  technical  schools  of  different 
grades.  Some  of  these  teach  the  boys  to  use  native 
tools  in  a  more  efficient  manner,  others  train  fore- 
men for  machine  shops  and  factories,  while  the 
highest  technical  college  in  India  is  said  to  be  the 
Allahabad  Christian  College,  which  is  under  the 
Presbyterian  Board.  These  schools  are  making  a 
real  contribution  to  industrial  progress  in  two  ways. 
They  train  men  for  leadership  in  the  industrial  de- 
velopment of  India,  and  they  furnish  for  such  posi- 
tions those  who  are  loyal  to  Christ  and  will  apply 
the  principles  of  the  Gospel  to  the  new  industrial 
problems  of  the  country. 

The  second  of  these  lines  of  industrial  work  is 
the  development  of  institutions  which  are  less  utili- 
tarian in  their  purpose.  These  include  the  manual 
training    high    schools,    which    teach    the    usual 


68    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

branches  and  in  addition  the  principles  of  wood- 
and  metal-working.  Among  these  should  be  in- 
cluded classes  where  boys  learn  to  do  artistic  work 
in  the  precious  metals  or  in  weaving  rugs. 

The  third  line  of  work  concerns  the  great  indus- 
trial problem  of  India,  the  raising  of  the  industrial 
efficiency  of  the  villager.  The  magnitude  of  this 
problem  is  realized  when  one  recalls  that  ninety 
per  cent,  of  the  population  of  India  live  in  towns  of 
less  than  five  thousand,  and  eighty  per  cent,  in 
villages  of  less  than  one  thousand.  How  can  these 
millions  be  assisted  ?  One  American  missionary 
introduced  into  India  the  sisal  plant,  and  invented 
an  inexpensive  but  effective  machine  for  making 
from  the  fibre  of  this  plant,  or  of  the  native  aloe, 
the  rope  which  every  Indian  uses.  Much  attention 
has  been  devoted  also  to  the  improvement  of  weav- 
ing machinery.  Thousands  of  Indians  have  earned 
their  living  by  making  cotton  cloth  on  hand  looms. 
The  competition  of  the  cotton  mills  of  England  has 
driven  many  of  these  to  the  wall  and  missionaries 
have  been  coming  to  their  rescue.  In  particular, 
one  American  missionary  has  succeeded  in  invent- 
ing a  hand  loom  which  is  simple,  cheap,  and  at  the 
same  time  so  efficient  that  for  the  present  at  least 
the  weaver  who  uses  it  can  make  a  good  living, 
much  better  than  had  ever  been  possible  with  the 
cruder  machine.  The  development  of  agriculture 
has  also  attracted  the  attention  both  of  government 
and  of  a  few  missionaries,  and  it  is  hoped  that  thus 
something  will  be  done  to  improve  the  condition  of 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     69 

the  village-Christian  and  make  it  possible  for  him 
to  support  his  family  and  the  Church. 

In  all  this  work  in  India,  especially  in  the  south, 
one  great  obstacle  has  been  encountered,  namely, 
the  opposition  of  caste,  which  prescribes  the  occu- 
pation of  a  man  and  proscribes  any  man  who  takes 
up  any  line  of  work  into  which  he  was  not  born. 
Besides  this  there  has  been  the  difficulty  of  the 
expensiveness  of  industrial  or  technical  education 
which  keeps  the  pedagogical  aim  in  the  foreground. 
In  Africa,  the  need  of  this  industrial  work  is  even 
greater  and  its  difficulties  less  serious.  It  is  strange 
that  among  people  who  tend  to  regard  manual 
labour  as  beneath  the  dignity  of  one  with  a  smat- 
tering of  education,  who  leave  the  bulk  of  produc- 
tive work  to  women,  and  whose  standard  of  living 
is  of  the  very  lowest,  the  missionaries  have  not  seen 
that  all  education  should  have  an  industrial  basis. 
While  a  few  of  the  leaders  may  not  need  to  support 
themselves  by  their  hands,  every  graduate  of  a 
Christian  school,  it  would  seem,  should  be  given, 
with  higher  ideals,  the  means  of  realizing  them. 

The  fact  is,  however,  that  much  of  the  mission 
education  here  has  neglected  industrial  training  so 
that  there  is  more  than  twice  as  much  in  India  as 
in  all  Africa.  Of  course  in  population  also  India 
exceeds  Africa.  Now,  however,  the  government 
officials  and  the  educators  are  awaking  to  the  neces- 
sity, and  before  many  years  the  few  centres  for  in- 
dustrial work  will  no  longer  be  peculiar.  Among 
the  chief  centres  for  such  work  may  be  mentioned 


70    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

Lovedale,  the  industrial  high  school  at  Adams  Mis- 
sion Station,  Natal,  known  as  Amanzimtote  Semi- 
nary, the  work  in  Uganda,  now  carried  on  inde- 
pendently by  a  stock  company  whose  members  are 
friends  of  the  mission,  and,  above  all,  the  Living- 
stonia  Mission,  in  which  all  the  education  has  an 
industrial  basis. 

In  China  and  Japan,  practically  nothing  has  been 
done  by  the  missionaries  along  industrial  lines. 
The  government  is  active  in  this  department,  and 
most  missionaries  feel  that  they  are  excused  from 
undertaking  this  work.  At  the  same  time,  it  is 
coming  to  be  seen  that  in  all  education  there  should 
be  the  manual  element,  both  to  dignify  labour,  to 
develop  the  pupil  intellectually,  and  to  make  him 
feel  that  mere  book  learning  is  not  sufficient  prep- 
aration for  efficient  service. 

Another  incubus  upon  the  development  of  peo- 
ples in  mission  lands  arose  from  their  ignorance  of 
sanitation,  hygiene,  medicine,  and  surgery.  The 
great  epidemics,  which  swept  away  vast  populations 
and  left  behind  a  trail  of  desolation  and  physical 
weakness,  worked  against  economic  efficiency. 
Likewise,  the  more  ordinary  physical  ills  reduced 
the  vitality  of  the  working  force  and  lessened  the 
number  of  workers.  The  missionary  at  an  early 
day  began  the  task  of  ministering  to  the  bodies  of 
the  people  in  his  field,  and  while  the  dominant 
motive  was  and  still  is  the  prevention  and  relief  of 
suffering,  the  result  has  been  that  and  more. 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     71 

Modern  medicine  was  introduced  into  Asia  and 
Africa  by  the  medical  missionary.  The  beginnings 
were  small  and  insignificant,  but  the  outcome  is 
most  impressive.  The  total  number  of  medical 
missionaries  in  the  world  is  not  large,  numbering 
only  1,015,  or  one  in  twenty  of  the  total  mission- 
ary force.  Of  this  number  China  has  365,  India, 
278,  and  all  of  Africa,  including  Madagascar,  113. 
In  India,  the  women  outnumber  the  men  163  to 
115,  but  in  all  the  world  they  furnish  just  about 
one-third  of  the  medical  workers.  This  is  not  a 
very  large  force  to  minister  to  the  physical  wants 
of  almost  a  billion  people.  Yet  the  work  which 
they  are  doing  is  impressive  in  itself  and  still  more 
so  in  its  outreach.  Under  their  supervision  are 
nearly  six  hundred  hospitals  and  more  than  one 
thousand  dispensaries.  It  is  difficult  to  secure  ac- 
curate medical  statistics,  especially  as  regards  the 
distinction  between  the  number  of  individual 
patients  and  the  number  of  treatments.  Hence  the 
figures  must  be  regarded  as  only  approximate. 
According  to  the  tabulated  reports,  the  number  of 
in-patients  received  into  the  hospitals  during  a  re- 
cent year  was  more  than  164,000  ;  the  out-patients 
visited  were  145,000  ;  the  number  of  dispensary 
treatments  was  nearly  4,250,000  a  year  ;  the  num- 
ber of  individual  patients  more  than  4,300,000  ;  and 
the  total  number  of  treatments,  7,500,000/ 

The  quality  of  work  done  by  these  devoted 
physicians  is  extraordinary.  Some  of  the  great 
1  Dennis  et  al,  "  World  Atlas  of  Christian  Missions, "  p.  83  et  seq. 


72    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

surgeons  of  the  world  are  medical  missionaries, 
who  could  command  a  princely  income  at  home, 
but  choose  to  live  on  a  missionary's  salary  of  not 
more  than  three  or  four  dollars  a  day  and  devote 
themselves  to  the  relief  of  suffering.  In  fighting 
the  dread  tropical  diseases  and  in  surgery  they 
excel.  Sometimes,  in  the  midst  of  surroundings 
which  the  home  practitioner  would  pronounce  im- 
possible, and  usually,  it  must  be  confessed,  without 
adequate  equipment,  these  surgeons  perform  opera- 
tions day  after  day.  Merely  from  the  view-point  of 
medical  and  surgical  science,  visiting  physicians 
have  pronounced  these  missionary  physicians  an 
honour  to  the  profession.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, they  perform  the  most  difficult  operations, 
and  succeed,  too.  In  fact,  they  must  succeed,  for 
a  few  failures  might  shut  the  door  for  years  against 
the  foreign  practitioner  of  strange  medicine. 

If  the  entrance  of  the  Gospel  has  had  the  effect 
of  raising  people  socially,  as  it  has,  then  the  means 
by  which  access  for  the  Gospel  was  obtained  should 
be  credited  with  some  of  these  results.  Such  has 
often  been  the  function  of  medical  missions.  Dr. 
Peter  Parker  is  declared  to  have  opened  China  to 
Christian  influence  at  the  point  of  the  lancet,  and 
he  was  but  one  of  these  pioneers.  Among  Moslems 
especially,  the  success  of  the  physician  in  curing 
supposedly  incurable  diseases  commends  him  and 
his  spiritual  message. 

Another  social  service  of  the  medical  missionary 
has  been  the  breaking  down  of  the  power  of  the 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     73 

medicine-man,  who  is  always  one  of  the  greatest 
obstacles  in  the  path  of  progress.  Whatever  des- 
troys his  influence  contributes  vitally  to  the  prog- 
ress of  the  Kingdom. 

Again,  the  medical  missionary  has  done  much  in 
the  way  of  preventive  medicine,  through  sanitary 
and  hygienic  measures,  to  check  epidemics.  It  was 
a  medical  missionary,  Dr.  D.  B.  Bradley,  who  in- 
troduced vaccination  into  Siam  and  personally 
vaccinated  thousands.  What  he  did  there  others 
have  done  in  other  parts  of  the  mission  field,  and 
have  thus  checked  the  scourge  of  smallpox.  It 
was  the  medical  missionaries  who  were  among  the 
leaders  in  the  task  of  halting  the  progress  of  the 
pneumonic  plague,  which  threatened  China  in  the 
winter  of  1910-1911. 

The  sanitary  conditions  in  the  East  are  indescrib- 
able and  are  often  almost  incredible  to  one  who  has 
not  seen  them  with  his  own  eyes.  No  wonder  that 
cholera  and  plague  are  ever-present  scourges  in 
India  and  cannot  be  eradicated  until  the  people  are 
taught  to  understand  the  cause  of  their  spread  and 
become  willing  to  take  the  proper  measures  to  stamp 
them  out.  The  Christian  community  has  thus  been 
made  intelligent  and  the  results  are  really  startling. 

In  the  year  1896  there  was  a  bad  outbreak  of 
plague  in  Bombay.  The  Christians  did  not  with- 
draw themselves  but  ministered  to  those  in  need. 
Yet  even  so,  the  number  attacked  was  very  small. 
The  plague  continued  for  a  long  period,  and  we 
have  the  mortality  tables  for  one  week  in  June,  1898. 


74    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

The  comparative  mortality  of  the  different  races 
and  castes  was  in  part  as  follows : ' 

Low  caste  Hindus 52. 95  per  thousand 

Moslems 45.93  " 

Jains 45.35   " 

Europeans 27.63  " 

Caste  Hindus 26.37  " 

Parsees 24.10  " 

Eurasians 24.01  " 

Brahmans 9.58  " 

Native  Christians 8.75  " 

The  low  percentage  for  the  Brahmans  is  accounted 
for  by  the  facts  that  they  are  the  most  cleanly 
about  their  person  and  their  homes,  and  that  they 
kept  themselves  away  from  contagion. 

This  is  not  an  isolated  case.  Cleanliness  is  a 
natural  accompaniment  of  a  vital  Christianity.  A 
Turkish  official  in  Cilicia  in  a  time  of  plague  ex- 
claimed,— "  How  is  it,  O  ye  Protestants  ;  has  God 
spread  His  tent  over  you  that  ye  are  so  spared  ?  " 
The  Chinese  are  not  given  to  overmuch  cleanliness, 
partly  due  perhaps  to  the  scarcity  of  water  away 
from  the  rivers  and  canals.  When  plague  prevailed 
in  Hong  Kong,  heathen  Chinese  asked,  "  How  is  it 
that  you  Christians  do  not  take  the  plague  ?  We 
have  had  processions  and  firecrackers,  and  made 
presents  to  our  gods,  but  all  in  vain  ;  we  are  dying 
by  hundreds." 3 

1Vid.  Dennis,  "Christian  Missions  and  Social  Progress,"  Vol. 
II,  p.  464,  foot-note. 
2 Ibid.,  p.  465  et  seq. 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     75 

The  medical  missionaries  have  thus  directly  done 
much  to  relieve  suffering  and  promote  health. 
They  are  doing  perhaps  more  in  accustoming  the 
people  of  these  countries  to  a  belief  in  the  efficacy 
of  medical  science  and  in  training  native  physicians 
and  nurses.  Attention  has  already  been  called  to 
the  number  of  classes  which  are  conducted  by  mis- 
sionaries for  the  training  of  doctors  and  nurses. 
Many  of  these  give  only  an  elementary  training 
but  even  this  is  of  some  service.  The  poor  over- 
worked medical  missionary  has  neither  time  nor 
strength  to  do  more  than  he  is  doing.  The  general 
education  of  his  assistants  is  insufficient  to  serve  as 
the  basis  for  the  highest  grade  of  medical  course, 
proper  facilities  are  lacking  in  the  way  of  books 
and  laboratories,  and  in  China  it  has  not  been  per- 
missible to  dissect  the  human  body. 

In  spite  of  these  difficulties,  much  is  being  ac- 
complished in  this  line.  For  instance,  in  Foochow 
and  vicinity  there  are  many  Chinese  practitioners 
who  are  proud  to  proclaim  upon  their  signs  that 
they  have  studied  under  one  of  the  beloved  medical 
missionaries  of  that  city,  Dr.  Kinnear.  In  fact,  it 
is  difficult  in  these  days,  in  most  mission  fields,  to 
get  far  beyond  the  reach  either  of  a  medical  mis- 
sionary or  of  some  native  doctor  trained  in  Western 
medicine  and  often  by  the  missionary.  This  is  true 
in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  where  one  finds  the 
graduates  of  the  medical  college  at  Beirut  scattered 
over  a  large  territory.  China  is  the  country  in 
which  authorities  claim  there  is  more  unnecessary 


76    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

physical  suffering  than  anywhere  else  on  the  globe. 
In  that  country,  there  are  few  trained  physicians 
apart  from  missions,  and  this  is  the  land  in  which 
Western  Christians  are  doing  the  most  to  develop 
medical  training  of  the  highest  order.  The  Union 
Medical  School  in  Peking  is  the  largest  now  in 
operation,  but  similar  schools  have  been  developed 
or  are  planned  for  other  great  centres,  like  Canton, 
Foochow,  Shanghai,  Hankow,  and  Chentu. 

All  these  lines  of  activity  tend  to  relieve  the  dis- 
tress caused  by  poverty,  for  they  aim  at  removing 
such  poverty  as  is  caused  by  ignorance,  industrial 
inefficiency,  and  disease.  At  the  same  time,  the 
missionary  is  not  deaf  to  the  appeals  of  present 
suffering,  and  through  orphanages  and  in  other 
less  institutional  ways  is  trying  to  relieve  the 
suffering  which  presses  upon  him  on  every  side. 
The  latest  statistics '  indicate  the  existence  of  nearly 
275  orphanages,  containing  over  20,000  inmates, 
more  than  one-half  of  whom  are  girls.  Of  these 
institutions,  two-thirds  are  in  India  and  the  others 
are  widely  scattered.  But  one  other  country  has 
more  than  twenty  and  that  is  Japan,  with  twenty- 
one.  Here  the  Japanese  Christians  have  taken  the 
lead  in  caring  for  destitute  children. 

One  has  a  very  imperfect  idea  of  what  Chris- 
tianity has  meant  to  Asia  and  Africa  in  the  re- 
moval of  ignorance  and  its  allied  intellectual  and 

tennis  et  al.t  "World  Atlas  of  Christian  Missions,"  p.  85. 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     77 

economic  evils  if  one  stops  at  this  point.  The 
peoples  themselves  have  girded  themselves  for  this 
task  and  are  rendering  the  work  of  the  missionary 
not  absolutely  but  relatively  less  essential. 

Japan  has  within  a  generation  created  a  compre- 
hensive educational  system,  which  extends  from  the 
elementary  day  school,  which  every  boy  and  girl 
must  attend  for  six  years,  up  through  the  high 
school  and  college  to  the  university,  with  its 
schools  of  medicine,  law,  engineering,  science, 
literature,  and  agriculture.  To  these  should  be 
added  special  technical  schools  of  less  than  uni- 
versity grade  and  normal  schools  for  the  training 
of  teachers.  Children  enter  the  elementary  school 
when  six  years  old,  and  the  boys  and  girls  receive 
the  same  education.  Those  who  fail  to  enter  the 
next  higher  school,  the  middle  school  or  Chu 
Gakko,  may  attend  a  higher  elementary  school  for 
two  or  three  years.  Here  they  are  prepared  to 
pass  the  selective  examination  which  is  ordinarily 
required  for  entrance  into  the  middle  school.  This 
examination  is  made  necessary  by  the  fact  that  the 
middle  schools  cannot  accommodate  all  who  desire 
to  continue  their  studies.  The  middle  school  course 
is  for  boys  and  covers  six  additional  years  and  in- 
cludes the  usual  subjects  for  such  a  grade  of  school, 
to  which  is  added  English.  In  fact,  three  lan- 
guages, Japanese,  Chinese,  which  bears  to  Japan  a 
much  more  intimate  relation  than  Latin  bears  to 
England  or  the  United  States,  and  English,  take 
nearly  one-half  of  the  entire  time  of  the  student. 


78    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

The  number  of  middle  schools  in  the  year  1909- 
1910  was  305,  with  118,133  pupils.  From  here  the 
successful  boy  passes  into  the  Koto  Gakko,  or  high 
school,  which  is  really  a  fitting-school  for  the  uni- 
versity, and  includes  perhaps  two  years  of  what 
would  be  regarded  in  the  United  States  as  college 
work.  Here,  too,  much  of  the  time  has  to  be  de- 
voted to  language,  each  pupil  studying  two  Western 
languages  besides  his  own  Japanese  and  the  Chinese 
classics.  The  eight  high  schools  contained  in  the 
year  1909-1910  6,029  pupils,  the  percentage  of 
applicants  who  could  be  admitted  being  only 
23.52.  The  percentage  of  successful  applicants 
for  the  departments  of  law  and  literature  was 
36.38,  for  science,  25.24,  and  for  medicine,  only 
11.02.  As  the  goal  of  the  ambitious  student  stand 
the  imperial  universities.  Those  at  Tokyo  and 
Kyoto  are  thoroughly  organized.  Two  others  are 
now  being  developed,  namely,  The  Imperial  North- 
Eastern  University,  which  includes  the  Sapporo 
Agricultural  College  and  the  Science  College  at 
Sendai,  and  the  Imperial  Kyushu  University,  with 
colleges  of  medicine  and  engineering.  These  uni- 
versities are  groups  of  professional  schools,  and  con- 
tained by  the  last  report  7,559  students.1 

Parallel  to  these  schools  for  boys  and  young  men 
are  the  schools  for  girls.  The  higher  school  for 
girls  takes  those  who  have  passed  through  the  six 
years  of  the  elementary  school  and  carries  them  on 
from  three  to  iive  years  longer,  according  to  cir- 

141  Japan  Year  Book,  1912,"  p.  175  et  seq. 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     79 

curnstances.  The  curriculum  includes  Japanese, 
English,  history,  geography,  mathematics,  natural 
history,  drawing,  housekeeping,  sewing,  music, 
and  gymnastics.  The  number  of  such  schools  in 
1909-1910  was  178,  with  51,781  pupils.1  There  is 
no  government  provision  for  further  education  for 
girls,  except  normal  schools,  but  private  munifi- 
cence has  started  in  Tokyo  the  Woman's  University 
which  will  doubtless  ultimately  be  worthy  of  the 
name. 

The  Japanese  Government  controls  the  normal 
training  of  the  empire.  Each  locality  is  required 
to  maintain  normal  schools  with  a  four  years' 
course  for  young  men,  and  a  three  years'  course 
for  young  women.  According  to  the  statistics  for 
1909-1910,  there  were  seventy-eight  of  these  schools 
with  23,422  students,  of  whom  one-quarter  were 
women.  The  higher  normal  schools,  four  in  number, 
enrolled  1,528,  with  a  slightly  higher  proportion  of 
women.  The  entire  course  extends  for  five  years 
or  more,  with  opportunity  for  advanced  work  and 
fellowships  abroad.2 

The  Japanese  have  not  only  created  their  educa- 
tional system,  but  they  are  seeing  that  it  is  used. 
The  percentage  of  children  under  obligation  to  at- 
tend school  who  are  actually  in  attendance  is 
98.1,3  or  14.5  per  cent,  of  the  population. 

The  chief  weaknesses  of  the  Japanese  education 
are  its  technical  character,  with  little  attention  paid 

1  "  Japan  Year  Book,  1912,"  p.  175  et  seq. 

2  Ibid. 


80    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

to  mere  culture ;  its  overcrowded  curriculum,  which 
can  hardly  develop  great  originality  in  the  pupil ; 
and  its  failure  to  give  sufficient  moral  training, 
though  moral  instruction  is  prescribed. 

The  policy  of  the  British  Government  in  India 
has  been  to  subsidize  schools  under  private  manage- 
ment rather  than  to  multiply  government  schools. 
Such  private  schools,  of  course,  must  conform  to  the 
regulations  of  the  Department  of  Education.  At 
the  head  of  the  education  of  India  have  stood  the 
five  universities,  Calcutta,  Madras,  Bombay,  Alla- 
habad, Punjab  (Lahore),  which  are  examining 
bodies  with  affiliated  colleges.  Other  universities, 
both  teaching  and  examining,  are  to  be  created. 
Normal,  technical,  medical,  and  art  schools  are 
found,  and  the  movement  to-day  is  in  the  direction 
of  greater  activity  by  the  government  in  the  field 
of  elementary  education,  looking  to  the  day  when 
it  shall  be  free  and  compulsory.  The  efforts  of  the 
Christians  have  stimulated  the  non-Christians  to 
improve  existing  schools  and  to  establish  new  ones 
of  different  grades  up  to  colleges.  Moslems  and 
Hindus  are  alike  engaged  in  this  work  of  provid- 
ing educational  facilities  for  their  respective  con- 
stituents. The  educational  statistics  for  1911 ' 
showed  172,292  schools,  of  which  15,038  were  for 
females,  and  6,354,772  scholars,  of  whom  873,553 
were  females.  It  is  estimated  that  in  British  India 
only  28.1  per  cent,  of  the  boys  of  school  age  are  in 
school,  and  4.6  per  cent,  of  the  girls.     All  of  this 

1  "Statesmen's  Year  Book,  1913,"  p.  131. 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     81 

shows  that  much  remains  to  be  done  before  India 
will  have  sufficient  educational  facilities.  It  is  also 
true  that  the  native  leaders  of  India  are  aware  of 
the  need  and  are  urging  great  forward  steps. 

China  has  followed  Japan  in  its  plans  for  educa- 
tional development.  By  an  Imperial  decree  of 
January  13,  1903,  the  Manchu  Government  pro- 
vided for  the  creation  of  a  comprehensive  system  of 
schools,  which  was  to  include  the  following : ' 

1.  Kindergartens  for  children  from  three  to 
seven,  which  were  to  be  located  near  orphanages  or 
the  homes  of  virtuous  widows. 

2.  Lower  primary  schools  of  the  first  grade. 
Large  sub-prefectures  were  to  open  at  least  three 
such  schools,  smaller  ones  two,  and  large  towns  one. 
Furthermore,  each  village  of  one  hundred  families 
was  to  have  its  school  for  the  children  living  within 
half  a  li,  about  one-sixth  of  a  mile.  This  standard 
was  to  be  reached  by  degrees.  Thus,  within  five 
years  each  group  of  four  hundred  families  was  to 
open  such  a  school.  In  addition  to  official  schools 
opened  by  local  authorities,  there  were  to  be  public 
schools  maintained  by  the  public  funds  of  a  city, 
market-town,  country-town,  or  hamlet,  and  for  this 
purpose  they  might  use  the  revenues  of  certain 
landed  property  primarily  given  for  works  of 
benevolence  or  charity,  for  theatricals,  and  for 
superstitious  festivities.  So-called  public  schools 
could  be  maintained  by  subscriptions  from  private 
gentlemen    or  persons  of    good   moral  standing. 

1  "China  Mission  Year  Book,  1911,"  p.  80  et  seq. 


82    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

Schools  opened  by  private  gentlemen  in  their 
homes  for  their  own  children  or  for  the  neighbour- 
hood, or  schools  opened  by  teachers  in  their  own 
homes  might  be  called  private  primary  schools. 
These  schools  were  to  be  open  to  children  of  seven 
years.  The  course  of  study  was  to  be  for  five 
years,  thirteen  hours  a  week,  with  attendance 
optional  for  the  present,  but  free.  The  curriculum 
was  to  include  morals,  Chinese  classics  and  language, 
arithmetic,  history,  geography,  physical  science, 
and  gymnastics. 

3.  Higher  primary  schools.  There  was  to  be  at 
least  one  in  each  sub-prefecture  and  they  might  be 
opened  in  market  towns  and  in  the  suburbs  of 
towns  and  cities.  Provision  was  made  for  official, 
public,  and  private  schools  of  this  grade.  The 
course  was  to  be  thirty-six  hours  a  week  and  extend 
over  four  years.  The  curriculum  was  to  include 
the  studies  of  the  lower  primary  with  the  addition 
of  drawing.  Instruction  in  these  schools  was  not  to 
be  gratuitous. 

4.  Middle  schools.  These  schools  were  to  be  a 
combination  of  a  finishing  school  for  those  who 
would  go  no  further,  and  a  preparatory  school  for 
those  who  would  go  on  to  a  higher  education.  Each 
prefecture  was  to  have  one,  and  the  sub-prefectures 
might  open  them  if  they  so  chose.  Schools  were  offi- 
cial if  opened  by  Mandarins,  public  if  opened  by  the 
gentry  and  associated  persons,  or  private  if  the 
cost  was  defrayed  by  a  private  gentleman.  The 
course  in  these  schools  was  to  be  for  five  years, 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     83 

thirty-six  hours  a  week,  and  include  instruction  in 
morals,  Chinese  classics,  Chinese  language  and 
literature,  history,  geography,  mathematics,  natural 
history,  physics  and  chemistry,  administration  and 
political  economy,  drawing,  and  gymnastics.  There 
was  also  to  be  instruction  in  foreign  languages 
Japanese  or  English  compulsory,  French,  German' 
or  Kussian  optional. 

Public  and  private  schools  of  these  three  grades 
could  be  opened  or  closed  only  with  the  approval 
of  the  local  authorities  and  were  to  be  subject  to 
the  same  regulations  as  the  official  schools. 

5.    High  schools.     There  was  to  be  one  high 
school  in  each  province  with  a  three  years'  course  of 
six  hours  a  day.     As  these  high  schools  were  to 
prepare  for  the  university,  they  were  to  be  divided 
into  three  divisions,   corresponding  to  the  three 
groups  of  faculties  in  the  university.     The  first  di- 
vision would  fit  for  the  faculties  of  classics,  law, 
arts,  and  commerce ;  the  second  for  science,  engi- 
neering, and  agronomy ;  and  the  third  for  medicine. 
Ethics,  law,  Chinese  literature,  foreign  languages, 
and  gymnastics  were  to  be  included  in  the  curric- 
ulum of  each  division.     Students  in  the  first  divi- 
sion were  to  study,  in  addition,  history,  geography, 
elocution,    law,   political    economy,   English,   and 
French  or  German.    In  the  second  section,  the  ad- 
ditional studies  were  to  be  mathematics,    physics, 
chemistry,  geology,  mineralogy  and  drawing,  with 
the  same  foreign  languages.     In  the  third  division, 
these  supplementary  studies  were  to  include  Latin, 


84    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  zoology,  botany, 
German,  and  French  or  English. 

6.  The  university.  This  was  to  be  located  at 
Peking,  with  eight  faculties  and  forty-six  courses  or 
specialties.  Three  courses  were  to  extend  four 
years,  the  remainder  for  three  years,  with  from  two 
to  four  hours  a  day  in  the  class  room.  If  a  province 
wished  to  establish  a  university,  it  might  do  so  on 
condition  that  at  least  three  faculties  be  included. 

7.  The  college  for  higher  studies.  This  was  to 
be  an  annex  to  the  university,  and  provide  for  post- 
graduate work.  The  courses  were  to  extend  over 
five  years  without  charge  to  the  students,  and  with 
the  privilege  of  travel. 

In  addition  to  this  series  of  educational  institu- 
tions, there  was  provision  for  lower  and  higher 
normal  schools.  Each  sub-prefecture  was  to  main- 
tain one  of  the  former.  It  was  to  offer  a  five  years' 
course  of  thirty-six  hours  a  week,  and  be  open  to 
persons  from  eighteen  to  twenty-five  years  of  age, 
who  were  graduates  of  at  least  the  lower  primary 
grade  and  who  possessed  a  good  reputation,  a  strong 
physique,  and  a  good  knowledge  of  Chinese  liter- 
ature. Students  who  accepted  free  tuition  were  to 
teach  for  at  least  six  years.  The  higher  normal 
schools  were  to  be  located  in  each  provincial  capi- 
tal, with  a  three  years'  course  of  thirty-six  hours  a 
week,  and  with  the  same  provision  in  regard  to  the 
acceptance  of  free  tuition.  The  students  were  to 
hold  the  diploma  of  a  lower  normal  or  middle 
school  or  prove  that  they  had  the  equivalent. 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     85 

For  girls  there  were  to  be  two  grades  of  primary 
school.  The  first  was  to  offer  a  four  years'  course 
for  girls  between  the  ages  of  seven  and  ten,  of  from 
twenty-four  to  twenty-eight  hours  a  week,  and  the 
second  a  course  of  the  same  length  for  girls  eleven 
to  fourteen,  of  from  twenty-eight  to  thirty-two 
hours  a  week.  In  addition  to  these  there  were 
to  be  girls'  normal  schools. 

The  provisions  of  this  decree  were  never  fully 
carried  out.  Some  schools  were  opened  only  to 
find  that  there  were  no  pupils  fitted  to  pursue  the 
prescribed  course,  and  the  teachers  had  to  set  to 
work  to  prepare  them  for  it.  Still,  much  progress 
had  been  made.  A  report  submitted  at  the  close 
of  1910  for  the  two  years  preceding  showed  that 
there  were  in  Peking  252  schools  with  15,774 
students,  and  in  the  provinces  42,444  schools  with 
1,284,965  students.1  This  was  an  increase  in  two 
years  of  more  than  twenty  per  cent.  The  report 
showed  that  the  public  and  private  schools  had 
passed  the  official  schools  in  number.  The  strong- 
est educational  work  is  found  in  certain  centres,  es- 
pecially in  Chi-H,  the  imperial  province. 

The  latest  educational  scheme  of  the  Eepublican 
department  of  education  includes  the  following 
schools :  primary  schools  with  a  course  of  four 
years ;  higher  primary  schools,  with  three  additional 
years  ;  middle  schools,  four  years ;  university,  with 
from  Hve  to  seven  years.  Technical  schools  of  three 
grades  are  also  called  for:  a  three  years'  course 

1  ll  China  Mission  Year  Book,  1911,"  p.  79. 


86    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

parallel  to  the  higher  primary  schools,  a  higher 
course  parallel  to  the  first  three  years  of  the  mid- 
dle school;  and  the  highest  professional  schools, 
parallel  to  the  university,  with  one  preparatory 
year  and  a  regular  course  of  from  three  to  four  ad- 
ditional years.  Normal  training  of  two  grades  is 
also  provided.  The  lower  is  parallel  to  the  middle 
school,  and  includes  one  year  of  preparatory  study 
and  four  years  of  regular  work.  The  higher  normal 
training  is  parallel  to  the  university  and  consists  of 
a  four  years'  course,  one  year  being  preparatory. 
For  scholars  who  are  not  going  on  to  the  higher 
schools,  supplementary  courses  of  two  years  each 
are  to  be  provided  for  those  who  have  gone  through 
the  primary  and  higher  primary  schools.1 

In  the  countries  of  the  nearer  East  the  move- 
ments are  in  the  same  direction,  and  if  the  present 
rate  of  progress  is  maintained,  within  a  compara- 
tively short  time  educational  facilities  should  be  at 
the  disposal  of  every  child. 

In  the  field  of  industrial  training,  the  progress 
has  been  less  marked.  The  British  Government  is 
committed  to  this  line  of  work  in  India,  and  public- 
spirited  Indian  gentlemen  of  wealth  have  aided  in 
its  development.  In  China,  the  government  and 
local  officials  have  taken  up  the  matter  with  vigour, 
and  in  large  centres  one  finds  industrial  schools 
where  boys  are  being  taught  trades  along  modified 
Western  lines.  Shrewdly  enough,  the  Chinese  are 
careful  not  to  go  too  fast.     They  recognize  that  for 

1  "  China  Year  Book,  1913,"  p.  388. 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     87 

a  long  time  to  come  there  will  be  room  for  hand- 
work, and  so  the  boys  who  are  being  taught  to 
weave  cloth  do  not  use  power  looms,  which  have 
not  yet  invaded  China  to  any  considerable  extent, 
but  use  a  hand-loom  invented  by  the  Japanese, 
which  is  more  efficient  than  the  ordinary  Chinese 
loom.  In  Japan,  the  government  is  developing  the 
economic  life  of  the  country,  is  encouraging  new 
industries,  and  is  increasing  the  productivity  of 
the  individual  labourer  and  of  the  country  as  a 
whole. 

The  standard  of  living  is  rapidly  rising  in  Japan, 
China,  India,  and  wherever  Western  influence  has 
gone,  even  though  it  is  far  below  that  of  the  United 
States  or  of  England. 

The  provision  of  proper  medical  facilities  has 
attracted  much  attention  in  Japan.  The  medical 
missionary  helped  to  introduce  modern  medical 
science  to  the  Japanese  people,  but  now  there  is 
little  call  for  such  work.  To-day  there  are  but 
eleven  medical  missionaries  in  Japan,  including 
Formosa  but  excluding  Chosen  (Korea).  At  least 
three  of  these  are  in  Formosa  and  another  is  one  of 
the  pioneer  physicians,  who  is  permitted  by  his 
board  to  remain  in  the  country,  but  whose  place 
will  not  be  filled  when  he  drops  out.  Years  ago, 
there  was  a  medical  department  connected  with  the 
Doshisha,  but  now  part  of  the  buildings  have  been 
taken  over  by  the  city  and  are  used  for  a  nurses' 
training  home,  while  the  medical  practice  formerly 


88    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

carried  on  by  the  missionary  physicians  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  Japanese  doctor. 

Missionaries  who  maintain  dispensaries  in  con- 
nection with  work  along  the  lines  of  social  settle- 
ments find  no  difficulty  in  securing  the  assistance 
of  Japanese  physicians,  who  give  their  services 
gratuitously,  after  the  American  fashion,  and  who 
are  fully  as  efficient  as  any  medical  missionaries 
could  possibly  be.  The  medical  schools,  with  their 
hospitals  attached,  are  as  well  equipped  as  those  of 
the  West  and  have  Japanese  and  European  pro- 
fessors. Hospitals  are  found  all  through  the  em- 
pire. The  missionaries  themselves  often  employ 
Japanese  physicians,  and  dentists  as  well,  and  there 
is  really  little  place  left  for  the  work  of  the  medical 
missionary  as  such,  this  work  having  passed  from 
foreign  into  Japanese  hands.  JSTow  that  Japan  has 
annexed  Korea,  she  is  doing  the  same  thing  there,  and 
is  introducing  hospitals  for  Japanese  and  Koreans 
alike.  In  fact,  in  Seoul,  we  were  told,  the  Japanese 
had  to  pay  more  for  treatment  in  the  hospital 
than  did  the  Koreans.  The  Japanese  are  likewise 
improving  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  empire, 
and  while  they  are  hampered  by  lack  of  funds,  the 
habits  of  the  people,  and  the  construction  of  their 
cities,  yet  they  are  rapidly  securing  a  good  water 
supply  and  proper  drainage  for  their  cities,  and 
they  are  making  the  ravages  of  diseases  next  to 
impossible.  Their  ability  in  such  matters  was  con- 
spicuous in  the  war  with  Russia,  when  their  success 
in  coping  with  such  problems  was  in  marked  con- 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     89 

trast  with  the  failure  of  the  United  States  at  this 
point  during  the  Spanish  war. 

Naturally  China  is  far  behind  Japan  in  this 
regard.  Yet  the  Manchu  Government  recognized 
the  need.  They  started  medical  schools,  chiefly 
for  the  army,  planned  for  a  medical  faculty  in 
their  proposed  university,  and  patronized  the 
Union  Medical  School  in  Peking,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  London  Mission.  Then,  too,  the  number 
of  Western-trained  Chinese  physicians  is  increasing, 
both  in  connection  with  mission  hospitals  and  in- 
dependently. Some  of  these  have  only  a  smatter- 
ing of  medical  knowledge,  while  a  few  are  at  the 
very  top  of  their  profession.  I  met  one  of  these 
last  in  Soochow.  He  had  given  up  a  lucrative 
practice  in  order  to  live  on  the  small  salary  paid  by 
a  mission  hospital,  because  he  thought  he  could  do 
more  good  in  that  position.  He  got  all  the  latest 
medical  books  and  instruments  from  Europe  and 
America,  was  an  expert  with  the  microscope,  and 
was  feeling  very  happy  at  the  time  of  our  visit  be- 
cause he  had  recently  isolated  a  germ  which  is  very 
rare  and  which  few  physicians  of  the  West  have 
ever  seen.  Another  physician  in  another  part  of 
the  country  with  somewhat  less  training  goes  out 
over  every  Sunday,  preaches  and  teaches  and  also 
gives  medical  attention,  and  turns  into  the  treasury 
of  the  hospital  every  cent  of  the  comparatively 
large  sums  he  receives  from  patients. 

Siam  has  developed  medical  schools,  but  here  the 
standards  are  too  low.    The  Siamese  physicians  are 


90    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

not  trusted  by  missionaries  and  are  unable  to  cope 
with  any  serious  situation. 

In  India,  the  British  Government  has  been  alive 
to  the  need  and  has  made  what  provision  it  could 
for  medical  attention.  Through  the  government, 
through  private  generosity,  and  through  funds  set 
apart  for  that  purpose,  physicians  are  located  in 
different  sections,  and  hospitals  and  dispensaries  are 
also  provided.  A  few  of  these  physicians  are  for- 
eigners, but  most  of  them  are  Indians,  a  large  pro- 
portion being  Eurasians.  These  men  do  not  always 
bear  a  good  reputation  either  for  medical  skill  or 
for  character.  Bribery  is  not  unknown  in  the  en- 
forcement of  sanitary  regulations  against  plague 
and  cholera,  as  I  know  from  personal  experience. 
Some  of  these  doctors,  however,  are  at  the  top  of 
their  profession,  and  while  they  do  not  command 
the  confidence  of  the  people  like  the  medical  mis- 
sionary, yet  they  are  doing  a  good  work  in  reliev- 
ing suffering  and  preventing  the  spread  of  disease. 
The  British  Government  has  a  very  fine  sanitary 
code,  but  it  is  difficult  of  enforcement  because  of 
the  prejudices  of  the  people  and  the  impossibility 
of  entering  homes  to  discover  and  remove  sick  per- 
sons, or  to  enforce  sanitary  measures.  With  the 
spread  of  education,  this  difficulty  will  disappear, 
until  finally  the  situation  in  India  will  be  similar 
to  that  in  Japan.  Wherever  the  British  Govern- 
ment goes,  it  seeks  to  care  for  the  health  of  the  peo- 
ple and  this  is  one  of  the  blessings  which  flow  from 
the  British  colonial  policy. 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     91 

Closely  allied  to  this  work  of  medical  relief  is 
that  of  providing  relief  in  times  of  public  calamity. 
Here,  again,  Japan  leads.  Since  1899,  every  pre- 
fecture has  been  required  to  create  a  fund  for  relief 
purposes,  and  the  state  adds  to  this  an  amount  pro- 
portionate to  that  set  aside  by  the  locality.  This 
entire  fund  amounted  in  1908-1909  to  nearly  $19,- 
500,000,  the  yearly  income  standing  at  over  $1,000,- 
000.  The  disbursements  naturally  vary.  In  1905- 
1906  the  amount  was  $327,000,  but  in  1908-1909  it 
was  less  than  $22,000.  Besides  this,  the  general  gov- 
ernment expended  in  that  same  year,  1908,  over 
$95,000  for  the  relief  of  paupers  not  cared  for  by 
their  relatives  or  the  local  communities,  and  the 
state  and  communities  together  expended  $25,000 
for  foundlings.1  The  forerunner  of  the  Ked  Cross 
Society  was  started  in  1877,  and  in  1886  Japan 
joined  the  Geneva  Convention.  At  the  end  of 
1909,  the  number  of  members  connected  with  the 
society  was  1,525,822,  while  the  total  assets  came 
to  a  grand  total  of  $7,940,000.2  The  people  of 
Japan  have  also  taken  up  the  various  lines  of  phil- 
anthropic work  for  the  care  of  the  dependent 
classes.  The  Japan  Year  Book  for  1912  listed 
ninety  orphanages,  blind  asylums,  leper  hospitals, 
maternity  hospitals,  and  the  like.3 

Such,  in  brief,  is  an  outline  of  what  the  mission- 
aries and  the  people  in  mission  lands  are  doing  for 

1  "Japan  Year  Book,  1912,"  p.  233. 

8  Ibid. ,  p.  235.  3  Ibid. ,  p.  245  f . 


92    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

the  removal  of  ignorance,  inefficiency,  and  poverty. 
If  these  were  the  only  results  of  missionary  work, 
it  would  not  have  been  in  vain,  and  yet  this  is  but 
the  beginning.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  proper  for 
the  Church  to  recognize  the  need  there  is  for  still 
greater  activity  in  this  field.  The  spread  of  educa- 
tion and  of  the  philanthropic  spirit  is  most  encour- 
aging, but  there  are  serious  weaknesses  in  this 
movement  which  only  Christianity  can  remove. 
The  government  education  is,  at  its  best,  neutral 
in  matters  of  religion,  and  it  tends  to  become  di- 
rectly and  positively  anti-Christian  and  anti-relig- 
ious. The  result  is  that  the  leaders  of  these  new 
movements  have  not  the  moral  stamina  they  need, 
they  are  not  absolutely  incorruptible,  and  they 
lack  Christian  ideals.  Unless  these  elements  can  be 
furnished,  these  movements  will  be  sterile  of  perma- 
nent results  and  may  even  become  a  curse.  This 
means  that  it  is  for  the  Christian  forces  at  home 
and  abroad  to  develop  Christian  education  to  such  a 
degree  and  along  such  lines  as  shall  create  more 
and  more  of  a  Christian  atmosphere  in  these  great 
nations,  and  send  out  Christian  men  to  be  leaders 
in  the  development  of  the  intellectual  and  mate- 
rial resources  of  the  great  nations  of  Asia  and  of 
the  peoples  of  Africa. 

The  Christian  schools  are  a  force  that  has  been 
used  for  the  conversion  of  individuals.  They  are 
also  a  force  for  the  Christianization  of  these  coun- 
tries. There  is  a  tendency  in  some  quarters  to  be- 
lieve that  the  function  of  the  Christian  school  is 


Progress  in  the  Removal  of  Ignorance     93 

exclusively  to  train  men  and  women  as  pastors, 
preachers,  teachers,  catechists,  and  Bible  women, 
and  to  regard  any  one  who  enters  into  secular 
education,  into  business  life,  or  into  government 
service  as  almost  guilty  of  a  breach  of  trust.  It  is 
true  that  the  force  of  Christian  workers  is  piti- 
fully small.  It  is  sadly  true,  also,  that  oftentimes 
graduates  of  these  schools,  who  do  not  remain  in 
the  employ  of  the  mission,  or  in  distinctive  Chris- 
tian work,  are  lost  to  the  Church  and  cease  to  exert 
a  positive  Christian  influence.  This  is  due  in  part 
to  the  temptations  to  which  they  are  subjected, 
which  will  naturally  become  less  powerful  with  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  Christians  in  these  call- 
ings, and  with  the  development  of  a  Christian 
atmosphere.  May  it  not  also  be  due  in  part  to  the 
fact  that  the  missionary  and  the  Church  regard 
these  men  as  having  been  false  to  their  trust,  and 
hence  the  men  themselves  lose  the  support  and  en- 
couragement which  would  come  from  the  sympathy 
and  active  cooperation  of  the  Christian  leaders  ? 
It  is  time  for  the  Church  and  for  the  Christian 
forces  to  see  that  there  is  a  call  for  Christian  men 
to  become  leaders  in  every  department  of  the  social 
life  of  the  rapidly  changing  East,  and  that  unless 
this  call  is  heeded,  the  Church  will  have  lost  an  op- 
portunity that  may  never  return.  Such  a  failure 
to  rise  to  the  situation  occurred  in  Japan  twenty 
years  ago,  and  it  may  never  be  possible  for  the 
Church  there  to  occupy  the  position  in  the  work  of 
education  which  it  might  now  be  holding  had  the 


94    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

missionaries  had  the  foresight  and  the  ability  to 
seize  the  opportunity  at  that  time.  In  these  days, 
the  mission  boards  and  the  missionaries  are  awake 
to  the  possibilities  in  China,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  before  the  crystallization  that  will  follow  the 
inauguration  of  the  new  regime  takes  place,  the  mis- 
sionaries will  be  able  to  secure  such  a  recognition 
for  Christianity  in  relation  to  the  development  of 
education  that  the  new  school  system  of  China  shall 
not  necessarily  be  positively  anti- Christian.  This  is 
a  time  for  statesmanship  of  the  highest  order,  as 
well  as  for  the  most  earnest  prayer  that  the  Church 
may  be  able  to  enter  the  open  doors  all  through  the 
Orient,  and  thus  aid  in  putting  a  permanently 
Christian  impress  upon  the  new  nations  now  devel- 
oping under  the  eyes  of  the  missionary  and  under 
the  impulse  which  originally  came  from  Christianity. 


ni 

PEOGEESS  IN  THE  IDEALS  OF  FAMILY  LIFE 
AND  THE  POSITION  OF  WOMAN 

NEXT  to  the  problems  of  securing  intellec- 
tual and  industrial  ability,  in  fundamental 
importance,  may  be  ranked  the  problems 
that  centre  in  the  ideals  of  family  life  and  the  posi- 
tion of  woman.  The  former  concern  primarily  the 
individual ;  the  latter  affect  the  primary  social  unit, 
genetically  considered,  namely,  the  family.  The 
family  is  the  institution  by  which  the  race  is  propa- 
gated, and  in  which  every  human  being,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  abnormal  cases,  receives  his 
earliest  training,  intellectual  and  religious.  Here 
he  learns  the  lessons  of  obedience  and  of  adjustment 
to  a  social  environment.  In  the  home  lies  a  centre 
of  influence  upon  social  development  which  can 
hardly  be  overestimated.  Some  of  the  serious 
social  problems  in  our  cities  arise  from  the  changes 
in  the  character  of  the  home  life  which  have  come 
about  within  the  last  generation,  and  even  within 
the  last  decade.  The  boy  problem  of  the  present 
day  has  arisen  from  a  change  in  living  arrange- 
ments by  which  the  home  has  ceased  to  be  what  it 
formerly  was,  the  centre  of  all  the  activities  of  the 
children,  and  the  place  where  they  learned  to  take 
an  active  part  in  the  economic  life  of  the  household. 

95 


96    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

In  the  home  life  of  the  countries  of  the  Orient, 
one  may  find  the  key  that  unlocks  many  of  the 
problems  of  social  development  there.  JNo  more 
fundamental  changes  in  the  social  organization  of 
these  nations  can  be  found  than  those  which  touch 
the  home.  All  that  affects  the  position  and  status 
of  woman  has  an  important  bearing  upon  this 
genetic  social  unit,  the  family. 

As  a  preliminary  to  the  discussion  of  the  position 
of  woman  in  typical  mission  lands  and  what  has 
been  done  for  her  elevation,  attention  should  be 
called  to  a  fact  that  has  often  been  overlooked. 
While  woman  has  been  despised  and  neglected,  yet 
it  is  equally  true  in  the  East,  as  in  the  West,  that 
the  hand  that  rocks  the  cradle  rules  the  world. 
Women  have  always  exerted  a  mighty  influence 
over  men,  and  the  ignorant  women  of  the  East  are 
the  last  bulwark  of  superstition.  If  they  can  be 
induced  to  unite  with  the  men  in  the  advocacy  of 
reform,  the  result  is  assured.  Neither  men  nor 
women  alone  are  able  to  bring  about  the  necessary 
changes.  Strangely  enough,  the  social  customs  and 
abuses  that  primarily  affect  woman  find  their 
strongest  supporters  in  the  women  who  are  their 
chief  victims.  Many  a  man  in  India  would  gladly 
reform  his  household  and  social  relations,  were  it 
not  for  the  influence  of  his  unreformed  mother, 
wife,  and  sisters-in-law.  Woman  holds  the  key  to 
the  situation  in  the  Orient  to-day.  The  men  have 
come  under  progressive  influences  but  they  are  held 
back  by  the  conservatism  of  the  women. 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life      97 

Thus,  a  prominent  Indian  gentleman  in  Madras 
told  me  that  he  could  not  go  to  England  or  Amer- 
ica to  study  conditions  with  reference  to  the  prob- 
lems of  his  own  country,  because  his  mother,  a  lady 
of  the  old  school,  had  threatened  to  kill  herself  the 
moment  she  heard  he  had  set  foot  on  a  steamer. 
He  believed  she  would  do  it  rather  than  endure  the 
disgrace  of  her  son's  having  committed  the  heinous 
sin  of  crossing  the  ocean.  This  is  typical.  Hence, 
one  can  appreciate  the  profound  significance  and 
importance  of  the  movements  that  are  affecting  the 
status  of  woman  and  the  family. 

A  study  of  the  position  of  woman  among  non- 
Christian  peoples  is  not  pleasant,  and  it  affords  lit- 
tle ground  for  pride  in  the  inherent  nobility  of 
man's  nature.  Rather,  it  reveals  the  depths  to 
which  men  may  sink  and  the  great  debt  which  the 
world  owes  to  Western  Christianity  and  its  ideal  of 
woman.  No  detailed  study  of  this  subject  is  pos- 
sible at  this  point.  All  that  can  be  attempted  is  a 
sketch  of  the  situation  as  it  presents  itself  in  certain 
typical  mission  fields. 

It  is  not  surprising  to  learn  that  among  the  less 
civilized  tribes  of  Africa  woman  had  no  high  posi- 
tion. She  was  regarded  and,  beyond  the  reach  of 
Christian  influence,  is  still  regarded  as  a  mere  chat- 
tel ;  polygamy  was  practiced  by  all  who  could  afford 
to  buy  many  wives  ;  and  social  standing  depended 
upon  their  number.  On  the  west  coast  every  Bule 
man  desired  twenty  or  thirty  wives,  and  some 
chiefs  had  from  sixty  to  eighty.     With  many  wives, 


98    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

the  husband  was  relieved  from  the  necessity  of  do- 
ing any  work.  In  parts  of  the  Congo  Valley,  the 
chief  with  many  wives  would  hire  them  out  to 
others.  African  wives  were  compelled  to  act  tem- 
porarily in  that  capacity  for  guests.  The  purchase 
price  of  women  in  some  parts  of  Africa  was  five 
large  blue  glass  beads,  while  ten  were  demanded 
in  exchange  for  a  cow.  During  a  famine  in  central 
Africa,  the  natives  of  Ushashi  were  selling  their 
wives  and  daughters  for  two  large  potatoes.  Under 
these  circumstances,  the  women  were  the  servants 
of  their  lords.  The  story  is  told  of  an  African 
who  ordered  his^wif  e  to  carry  him  on  her  shoulders 
over  the  deep  and  perilous  ford  of  a  river.  A  white 
man  remonstrated  with  him  after  he  was  safely 
across,  but  the  worthy  native  asked  in  astonish- 
ment :  "  Then  whose  wife  should  carry  me  over,  if 
my  own  does  not  ?  " 

Similar  facts  are  reported  from  the  Pacific 
Islands.  Dr.  Paton  remonstrated  with  a  native  of 
the  New  Hebrides  for  beating  his  wife  savagely. 
He  replied  :  "  We  must  beat  them  or  they  would 
never  obey  us.  When  they  quarrel  and  become  bad 
to  manage,  we  have  to  kill  one,  and  feast  on  her. 
Then  all  the  other  wives  of  the  whole  tribe  are 
quiet  and  obedient  for  a  long  time  to  come." 

Among  the  great  peoples  of  Asia,  India  presents 
the  darkest  picture,  which  in  certain  aspects  more 
nearly  approaches  that  of  Africa.  In  discussing 
the  position  of  woman  in  India,  one  is  confronted 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life      99 

by  the  difficulty  that  India  is  really  a  continent, 
not  a  homogeneous  country,  and  that  what  is  true  of 
one  section  often  does  not  hold  in  another.  Even 
so,  the  population  is  so  great  that  these  different 
nationalities,  castes,  or  language  areas,  contain  so 
many  people  that,  even  if  what  is  true  of  one  sec- 
tion does  not  hold  elsewhere,  it  yet  affects  a  large 
number  of  individuals. 

In  the  early  Vedic  times,  the  position  of  women 
was  apparently  one  of  power  coupled  with  honour. 
They  had  fully  as  much  influence  as  had  the  women 
of  Greece  or  of  Home.  They  were  equal  to  their 
husbands  in  the  home ;  they  were  their  necessary 
partners  in  the  performance  of  religious  duties; 
and  even  in  politics  and  administration  they  had 
influence.  Child  marriages  were  not  known  and 
girls  could  choose  their  own  husbands.  Yet  even, 
so,  women  as  such  were  held  in  little  esteem,  and 
it  was  only  as  wives  that  they  were  respected. 

"What  a  contrast  this  offers  to  the  present  situa- 
tion! A  bland  Hindu  confessed  that  upon  two 
doctrines  all  sects  were  agreed :  "  We  all  believe  in 
the  sanctity  of  the  cow  and  in  the  depravity  of 
woman."  The  Tamil  proverbs  indicate  the  gen- 
eral esteem  in  which  woman  is  held.     Take  two : 

* '  What  is  the  chief  gate  to  hell  ?    Woman. " 

"  What  is  cruel  ?    The  heart  of  a  viper. 
What  is  more  cruel  ?  The  heart  of  a  woman. 
What  is  the  most  cruel  of  all !    The  heart 
of  a  soulless,  penniless  widow. m 

1  Jones,  op.  cit.,  p.  152. 


loo    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

Under  Hinduism  woman  suffers  from  serious  dis- 
abilities. One  injunction  reads  :  "  In  childhood 
must  a  female  be  dependent  on  her  father,  in  youth 
on  her  husband,  her  lord  being  dead,  on  her  sons. 
A  woman  must  never  seek  independence."  The 
commentators  thought  this  did  not  provide  for 
every  conceivable  case ;  hence  they  added :  "  If  she 
have  no  sons,  she  must  be  dependent  on  and  subject 
to  the  near  kinsmen  of  her  husband;  if  he  have 
left  no  kinsmen,  on  those  of  her  father ;  or,  if  she 
have  no  paternal  kinsmen,  on  the  sovereign."  x 

No  woman  is  permitted  to  be  taught  the  Yedas 
or  other  sacred  books.  This  comprised  all  the 
education  there  was  in  the  old  days,  and  the 
illiteracy  of  woman  has  been  decreased  but 
slightly.  In  1911  only  a  trifle  more  than  one 
per  cent,  of  the  women  of  India  could  read  and 
write,  and,  if  one  subtracts  the  Christian  and 
Parsee  women,  the  percentage  for  the  women  of 
Hinduism  would  be  still  farther  reduced. 

Any  high  degree  of  education  would  be  made 
difficult  if  not  impossible  by  the  early  age  at  which 
girls  are  married.  In  the  province  of  Mysore, 
which  is  regarded  as  a  progressive  state,  the 
census  of  1891  revealed  the  fact  that  one  out  of 
every  five  married  women  had  been  married  under 
the  age  of  nine.  A  census  taken  some  thirty  years 
ago  in  the  state  of  Baroda,  which  had  then  a 
population  of  a  little  less  than  2,000,000,  showed 
that  558  females  and  132  males  had  been  married 

1  Wilkins,  "  Modern  Hinduism,"  p.  327. 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     1 01 

before  they  had  completed  their  first  year.  By  the 
census  of  1891,  among  222,000,000  out  of  the  287  - 
000,000  of  India,  there  were : ' 

Ages  Married  Boys               Married  Girls 

Below  4  years  89,051                         223,560 

5-9  nearly  602,000   more  than  1,850,000 

Below  14  2,725,124                      6,871,999 

Of  course,  in  the  most  extreme  cases,  the  marriage 
ceremony  practically  amounts  to  mere  betrothal, 
and  the  girl  does  not  go  to  her  husband  until  later ; 
but  the  day  is  not  long  delayed  when  she  must  go 
to  her  husband  and  become  the  household  drudge 
for  the  older  women  of  the  family.  It  is  not  nec- 
essary to  enter  into  the  reasons  for  this  custom 
further  than  to  remark  that  one  of  the  reasons 
adduced  is  that  an  early  marriage  is  necessary  as  a 
protection  to  the  girls,  since  they  mature  at  an 
earlier  age  than  with  us. 

Out  of  this  marriage  custom  flow  many  evil  con- 
sequences, both  to  the  women  of  India  and  to 
Indian  society.  It  propagates  the  unfit,  as  no  one 
is  relieved  from  the  responsibility  of  having  chil- 
dren. It  makes  impossible  a  high  degree  of  educa- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  young  men,  because,  long 
before  a  full  education  can  be  completed,  thev  must 
withdraw  from  school  and  assume  the  responsibility 
for  the  support  of  a  family.  This  early  entrance 
into  the  marriage  relationship  also  prematurely 
exhausts  the  boys  and  young  men,  and  saps  their 
vitality,  so  that  they  lack  energy  and  push. 

^hintamani,  C.  Y.,  "Indian  Social  Reform,"  p.  173. 


102    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

The  physical  consequences  to  the  girls  are  also 
serious.  Many  girls  become  mothers  by  the  time 
they  are  twelve.  Few  are  permitted  to  reach  full 
development  before  they  are  compelled  to  bear 
children.  Those  in  a  position  to  know  declare 
that,  as  a  consequence  of  this  pernicious  custom, 
one-fourth  of  the  women  of  India  die  prematurely, 
one-fourth  become  hopelessly  invalided,  and  the 
majority  of  the  remainder  suffer  in  health.  It  is 
almost  sure  death  for  a  girl  of  thirteen  or  fourteen 
to  be  married  to  a  man  of  thirty-five,  and  yet  hun- 
dreds of  educated  men  of  that  age  follow  the 
custom  and  take  girl- wives.  Feeble-mindedness, 
hopeless  idiocy,  rickets,  and  scrofula  result  from 
this  custom.  Social  reformers  in  India  have  de- 
clared publicly  that,  in  consequence  of  the  early 
marriages,  the  race  has  preserved  the  softer  ele- 
ments of  character  but  has  lost  patriotism,  love  of 
enterprise,  energy,  aspiration,  devotion  to  duty,  and 
the  like.  A  native  physician  at  a  congress  in  1897 
attributed  to  this  custom  the  fact  that  the  Hindus 
had  fallen  easy  victims  to  every  invading  tyrant. 
No  baby-born  race,  declared  another, — and  the 
Indian  people  are  baby-born, — or  one  brought  up 
by  illiterate  mothers,  can  develop  virile  qualities. 

The  fact  that  the  wives  are  illiterate  makes  it  im- 
possible for  their  husbands  to  regard  them  as  rational 
companions,  and  the  sexual  relationship  is  without 
the  elevating  moral  influence  it  should  have. 
"  Yery  few  people,"  declared  a  noted  Pundit,  "  can 
justly  apprehend  the  nature  and  depth  of  the  social 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     1 03 

degradation  caused  by  the  contemplation  of  women, 
not  as  a  rational  and  moral  companion,  but  as  an  ob- 
ject of  selfish  pleasure." * 

Among  the  Hindu  population,  there  is,  with  two 
exceptions,  little  polygamy,  though  concubinage  is 
tolerated.  One  of  these  exceptions  is  in  the  case  of 
a  man  whose  wife  does  not  bear  him  a  son  within 
seven  years.  It  is  permissible  for  such  a  man  to 
take  another  wife  and  this  is  almost  certain  to  be 
done.  The  Kulin  Brahmans,  found  mostly  in  Ben- 
gal, are  the  other  exception.  These  are  men  who  for 
a  consideration  will  marry  any  number  of  girls.  An 
investigation,  made  a  little  more  than  twenty  years 
ago  in  426  villages,  showed  618  Kulin  bigamists 
and  520  polygamists.  One  had  107  wives  and 
others  had  67,  52,  and  50  each.  Twenty-one  had 
25  or  more  wives,  and  442  had  from  three  to  ten 
wives  apiece.2 

Still  another  count  in  the  indictment  of  India's 
treatment  of  her  women  concerns  widows.  By  the 
census  of  1891,  among  262,300,000  people  in  India 
there  were  13,878  widows  not  over  four  years  old 
and  64,040  between  five  and  nine  inclusive.  The 
total  through  the  age  of  fourteen  was  252,450  ; 
from  fifteen  to  forty-nine,  11,157,140;  and  fifty 
or  over,  11,224,933.3 

1  Murdoch,  J.,  "  Papers  on  Indian  Social  Reform  :  The  Women 
of  India,"  p.  25. 

3 Dennis,  J.  S.,   "Christian  Missions  and  Social  Progress/' 
Vol.  I,  p.  122  note. 

*lbidn  Vol.1,  p.  124. 


104    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

In  the  matter  of  the  remarriage  of  widows,  some 
of  whom  are  married  in  infancy  and  have  never 
lived  with  their  husbands,  there  are  differences  of 
custom.  Thus,  in  the  North- West  Provinces,  out 
of  a  population  of  40,000,000  Hindus,  seventy-six 
per  cent,  permit  and  encourage  the  remarriage  of 
widows.  Of  the  more  than  22,000,000  widows  re- 
ported by  the  census,  it  is  estimated  that  about 
two  and  a  half  millions  are  among  the  Brahmans 
and  the  Rajputs,  and  these  strictly  enforce  the  pro- 
hibition of  remarriage.1 

As  to  the  genera]  attitude  towards  widows,  this 
also  varies  somewhat ;  yet  a  Hindu  writer  declares 
that  the  impression  made  upon  his  childish  mind 
was  that  a  widow  "  belonged  not  to  the  ranks  of 
the  two  recognized  sexes,  that  possibly  she  might 
be  a  being  of  a  third  sex,  or  else  a  member  of  a 
totally  different  species  of  the  animal  world."2 
Everywhere  she  is  regarded  as  a  person  of  ill  omen. 
Until  the  practice  was  stopped  by  the  British  Gov- 
ernment, she  was  urged,  often  compelled,  to  permit 
herself  to  be  burned  alive  upon  the  funeral  pyre  of 
her  husband.  Some  people  believe  that  this  was 
less  cruel  than  her  present  lot,  which  is  that  of  a 
household  drudge,  the  slave  of  all  the  family,  often 
the  common  property  of  the  men,  denied  all  pleas- 
ures, and  without  any  escape,  save  through  death 
or  entrance  upon  an  evil  life.  There  are  regions 
and  castes  in  which  the  treatment  is  less  cruel,  es- 

1  Murdoch,  J.,  op.  cit.,  p.  116. 

'Fuller,  Mrs.  M.  B.,  "Wrongs  of  Indian  Womanhood,"  p.  168. 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     105 

pecially  if  she  is  the  mother  of  children  and  above 
all  of  sons.  A  child  widow  or  a  childless  young 
widow  is  the  one  upon  whom  the  abuse  chiefly 
falls,  and  this  is  because  she  has  nothing  to  set  over 
against  the  fact  that  she  is  regarded  as  the  murderer 
of  her  husband.  JSTo  marriage  is  arranged  unless 
the  astrologer  declares  that  the  horoscopes  indicate 
long  life  for  the  parties.  Hence,  if  the  husband 
dies  young,  the  Hindu  concludes  that  it  is  due 
to  some  sin  committed  by  the  wife  in  a  pre- 
vious existence.  Hence,  she  is  virtually  his  mur- 
derer. 

In  addition  to  all  these  evils  in  the  position  of 
woman,  we  must  mention  still  another,  namely, 
their  seclusion,  which  probably  dates  from  the  time 
of  the  Mohammedan  conquest  of  India.  This  affects 
only  a  portion  of  the  women  of  India.  In  the 
south  and  west,  only  the  better  classes  are  affected 
by  it,  and  these  only  to  a  limited  extent.  In  the 
north  and  north-west  and  in  the  Moslem  native 
states,  it  is  fully  enforced  among  the  higher  classes, 
and  the  custom  tends  to  filter  down  through  so- 
ciety. It  is  a  mark  of  social  distinction  if  a  man 
can  afford  to  keep  his  wife  and  daughters  behind 
the  purdah.  In  a  place  like  Hyderabad,  the  women 
and  their  slave  attendants  are  practically  prisoners. 
A  husband  killed  his  wife  because  a  man  by  mere 
accident  had  seen  her  back  through  an  open  door, 
though  she  was  unaware  of  it.  The  effect  of  this 
system  is  to  injure  the  woman's  health,  make  her 
constantly  conscious  of  her  sex,  prevent  her  from 


106    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

getting  into  touch  with  the  world,  and  keep  her 
horizon  as  narrow  as  possible. 

This  is  a  mere  sketch  of  some  of  the  features  of 
the  treatment  of  women  in  India,  but  it  is  enough 
to  indicate  the  need  of  change  and  the  lines  along 
which  it  should  be  made. 

China  is  the  only  country  in  the  world  with  a 
female  population  exceeding  that  of  India.  The 
situation  here  is  interesting.  In  general,  woman  in 
China  is  in  bad  odour.  The  radical  which  signifies 
"  woman,"  when  doubled,  means  "  to  wrangle  "  ; 
tripled,  it  means  "  to  intrigue,"  also  "  seduction," 
"  fornication,"  and  "  adultery."  Of  the  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-five  more  common  characters 
which  are  written  with  this  radical,  fourteen  have 
a  good  meaning  and  eighty-six  may  be  said  to  be 
in  different  in  meaning;  but  there  are  thirty-five 
that  have  a  bad  signification,  and  these  include 
some  of  the  most  disreputable  words.1 

Woman  is  proverbially  the  incarnation  of  jeal- 
ousy, and  hence  it  strikes  the  Chinese  as  most 
irreverent  to  speak  of  God  as  a  jealous  God.  An 
ancient  verse  of  Chinese  poetry  has  been  rendered 
into  English  thus  : 

"  The  serpent's  mouth  in  the  green  bamboo, 
The  yellow  hornet's  caudal  dart ; 
Little  injury  these  can  do  ; 
More  venomous  far  is  a  woman's  heart."  * 

1  Smith,  A.  HM  "Chinese  Characteristics, • '  p.  246. 
*Ibid.,  p.  245. 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     107 

There  is  a  general  feeling  that  woman  cannot 
express  filial  piety,  and  hence,  when  a  case  occurs 
of  a  woman's  sacrificing  herself  for  her  parents, 
great  honour  is  paid  her. 

The  general  attitude  towards  women  is  indicated 
by  the  sorrow  which  is  felt  when  a  girl  is  born 
into  a  family.  She  is  regarded  as  a  burden,  not  as 
a  source  of  joy.  The  main  object  in  marrying  her 
off  is  to  get  rid  of  having  to  support  her.  The 
sale  of  girls  and  of  women  has  been  frequent, 
especially  in  times  of  famine.  During  such  periods, 
the  sale  was  carried  on  as  openly  as  that  of  mules 
or  donkeys.  During  the  famine  of  1878,  the  ex- 
port of  women  and  girls  from  the  three  northern 
provinces  was  so  great  that  in  some  places  it  was 
difficult  to  hire  a  cart  for  any  purpose,  as  they  were 
all  being  used  to  transport  the  human  goods  to  the 
homes  of  the  purchasers.  Another  method  of 
securing  a  similar  result  was  to  lease  a  wife.  An 
early  inquirer  at  Emgpo  had  leased  his  wife  for 
ten  years.  When  he  realized  the  wrong,  he  tried 
to  redeem  her,  but  the  party  in  possession  refused 
to  release  her.  Before  the  expiration  of  the  lease, 
the  second  husband  died  and  the  family  or  clan 
sublet  her  to  a  third  party  for  the  remainder  of 
the  term  of  ten  years.  Among  officials  a  common 
and  polite  present  used  to  be  a  favourite  concubine. 
Among  the  common  people,  who  could  not  afford 
an  additional  wife,  a  wife  was  often  loaned. 

The  poorer  people  devised  a  method  of  escaping 
the  financial  burden  of  a  daughter's  support.     This 


108    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

was  known  as  the  "  rearing-marriage."  By  it  the 
girl  was  made  over  to  the  family  into  which  she 
was  to  marry,  was  reared  by  them,  and  married 
at  their  convenience.  This  was  regarded  as  a  con- 
fession of  poverty.  It  was  superior  to  the  Indian 
custom  of  child-marriage,  but  such  girls  might 
have  a  hard  lot.  Mothers-in-law  resented  having 
to  feed  and  clothe  such  children,  often  treated  them 
cruelly,  and  sometimes  murdered  them. 

Christianity  teaches  that  a  man  shall  leave  his 
father  and  mother  and  cleave  to  his  wife.  Chinese 
ethics  teach  that  the  man  must  cling  to  his  father 
and  mother  and  compel  his  wife  to  do  the  same. 
Before  her  marriage,  she  is  a  servant  of  her  parents. 
The  word  in  Chinese  that  is  used  like  the  English 
word  "  daughter  "  means  "  slave  girl."  Aiter  mar- 
riage there  is  a  change  in  masters.  Her  husband, 
whom  she  is  to  serve  for  time  and  for  eternity,  re- 
gards her  as  little  more  than  a  chattel.  The  power 
of  a  husband  and  the  parents-in-law  over  the  women 
of  the  household  is  almost  unlimited.  Yet  even 
here  human  nature  will  assert  itself,  and  the  hen- 
pecked husband  is  ridiculed  in  Chinese  literature  as 
in  that  of  America.  One  of  the  classic  stories  is 
that  of  ten  husbands  who  felt  themselves  aggrieved 
by  the  attitude  of  their  wives,  and  who  decided  to 
organize  themselves  into  a  society  for  the  purpose 
of  asserting  their  prerogatives.  They  had  met  for 
this  purpose,  when  the  wives,  who  had  got  wind 
of  the  plan,  marched  into  the  room,  with  the  result 
that  all  but  one  of  the  men  fled.    With  a  con- 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     1 09 

temptuous  sniff,  they  marched  out ;  whereupon  the 
nine  timid  husbands  decided  to  elect  the  tenth,  who 
had  stood  his  ground,  as  their  president.  They 
went  in  to  announce  the  election,  only  to  find  him 
dead  from  fright ! 

While  China  does  not  force  the  marriage  of  mere 
children,  yet  the  marriage  customs  lead  to  great 
abuses.  The  matches  are  all  arranged  by  the  pro- 
fessional match-maker,  and  one  who  is  unscrupulous 
may  work  great  injustice.  One  missionary  knew 
of  two  young  men  who  found  their  wives  to  be 
idiots,  while  a  young  girl  of  a  high  family  found 
herself  married  to  a  badly  formed  imbecile  covered 
with  loathsome  sores. 

The  Chinese  family  is  supposed  to  be  monogamous 
but  the  emperor  set  the  example  of  polygamy.  By 
law  he  was  entitled  to  wives  of  three  ranks.  First 
was  the  empress,  who  was  alone  in  her  dignity. 
In  rare  cases  two  princesses  shared  the  imperial 
throne.  The  secondary  wives  were  unlimited  in 
number,  and  one  of  them  usually  succeeded  the 
empress  in  case  of  the  latter's  death.  The  third 
rank  was  filled  to  suit  the  taste  and  desire  of  the 
emperor.  Earely  did  one  of  these  attain  the 
throne.  When  the  Emperor  Kuang  Hsu  was 
married  in  1889,  two  secondary  wives  were  chosen 
for  him  in  addition  to  the  empress.  Those  who 
have  been  able  to  afford  such  a  family  have  fol- 
lowed the  example  of  the  emperor,  but  as  a  rule 
only  one  wife  is  married  with  the  full  ceremony. 
The  second  wife  owes  obedience  to  the  first,  unless 


lio    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

she  has  children  while  the  first  has  none.  In  that 
case,  they  are  on  an  equal  footing.  While  the  in- 
troduction of  an  additional  wife  or  concubine  is 
sometimes  resented,  yet  not  infrequently  the  ladies 
of  the  household  are  pleased  to  have  it  done,  be- 
cause it  lends  additional  dignity  to  the  household. 
Somewhat  similar  is  the  custom  by  which  a  Chinese 
merchant,  who  must  spend  much  of  his  time  in 
another  city,  away  from  home,  may  support  there 
a  second  home  with  wife  and  children. 

Theoretically,  divorce  is  easy  in  China.  There 
are  seven  reasons  for  which  it  may  be  granted :  dis- 
obedience to  the  parents-in-law,  childlessness,  im- 
proper conduct,  jealousy,  loathsome  or  contagious 
disease,  stealing,  and  talking  too  much.1  Practi- 
cally, divorce  is  not  eas}^.  The  population  of  China 
presses  very  closely  upon  the  margin  of  subsistence. 
The  social  system  makes  no  provision  for  an  un- 
married daughter,  as  the  land  is  divided  among  the 
sons  of  the  household.  Hence,  there  is  no  way  by 
which  a  divorced  daughter,  who  returns  to  the 
parental  home,  can  be  supported,  and  the  family 
will  use  every  influence  to  prevent  the  breaking  up 
of  the  marriage  tie,  unless  there  is  a  valid  reason 
or  they  have  a  chance  of  marrying  her  to  another. 

In  China,  the  lot  of  widows  is  not  so  bad  as  it  is 
in  India,  and  yet  suicide  is  encouraged.  A  woman 
is  supposed  to  belong  to  her  betrothed  and  to  her 
husband,  and,  if  he  dies,  the  truly  honourable  thing 
for  her  to  do  is  either  to  kill  herself  or  to  remain  a 

1  Dennis,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  I,  p.  117. 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     1 1 1 

widow  throughout  life.  A  widow  may  become  a 
concubine  and  suffer  less  disgrace  than  if  she  be- 
comes a  lawful  wife.  It  has  been  customary  to  re- 
port the  suicide  of  widows  to  the  government, 
which  has  then  publicly  announced  such  cases  in  the 
official  Peking  Gazette.  One  finds  in  China  many 
a  monument  erected  in  honour  of  widows  who  have 
shown  their  conjugal  loyalty  by  following  their 
husbands  into  the  spirit  world. 

The  women  of  China  have  suffered  from  another 
disability,  namely,  foot-binding.  In  some  parts  of 
the  country,  practically  all  the  women  have  had 
small  feet.  Elsewhere,  the  coolie  women,  but  no 
others,  have  been  exempt.  The  effect  of  this  cus- 
tom has  been  to  cause  a  terrible  amount  of  needless 
suffering,  to  cut  women  off  from  the  possibility  of 
outdoor  life,  to  reduce  their  vitality,  to  remove 
them  from  a  position  where  they  could  exert  a 
helpful  influence  in  a  broad  way  upon  society,  and 
in  general  to  cramp  them  physically,  intellectually, 
and  socially. 

Family  life  in  China  has  not  been  ideal.  The 
Chinese  make  fond  parents  and  the  boys  are  under 
no  real  discipline.  Only  the  ingrained  feeling  of 
filial  piet}%  which  is  enforced  upon  each  individual 
by  all  his  education  and  by  the  institutions  and 
customs  of  society,  prevents  this  lax  family  disci- 
pline from  resulting  in  greater  evil. 

In  pleasant  contrast  to  India  and  China,  Japan  is 
a  country  in  which  woman  has  occupied  a  rela- 


112    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

tively  high  place.  Of  the  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
three  Japanese  sovereigns,  nine  have  been  women. 
The  chief  deity  in  their  mythology  is  a  woman.  In 
the  seventeenth  century,  Japanese  women  made 
brave  martyrs.  Their  feet  have  never  been  bound. 
Among  the  middle  and  lower  classes  they  are  free 
to  move  about  and  visit  their  friends.  Yet  woman 
has  been  regarded  as  inferior,  the  plaything  of  man, 
rather  than  as  his  companion  and  equal.  A  Jap- 
anese gentleman  is  reported  to  have  said  to  the 
American  wife  of  a  Japanese :  "  Woman  is  a  fool. 
But  if  she  will  obey  her  husband,  people  won't 
laugh  at  her.  Japanese  women  are  much  better 
than  European  women,  though.  The  Western 
women  rule  everything ;  they  think  they  are  great 
gods.  Their  husbands  are  very  unwise  and  cowardly 
to  let  them  behave  in  such  proud  style.  The 
European  wife,  instead  of  waiting  on  her  husband, 
makes  him  get  everything  for  her."  And  the  whole 
was  uttered  in  a  way  that  implied  "  disgusting  and 
preposterous." 

The  educated  wife  of  a  prominent  Japanese  offi- 
cial made  a  trip  to  America  and  Europe  a  few  years 
ago.  An  American  lady  asked  her  what  impressed 
her  most  during  her  first  days  in  this  country.  She 
replied,  "  The  way  women  are  treated  here.     Now 

I  understand  what  meant  when  he  used 

to  tell  me,  '  When  we  are  with  Europeans,  you  go 
first ;  when  we  are  with  Japanese,  I  go  first ' " ! 
Until  very  recently  the  pronoun  used  by  all  Jap- 
anese women  in  speaking  of  themselves  was  sho,  the 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     1 13 

primary  meaning  of  which  is  "  concubine,"  and  in 
Japanese  novels  Western  women  are  represented  as 
speaking  of  themselves  in  the  same  way.  The  late 
emperor  of  Japan  did  much  for  the  progressive 
development  of  the  empire,  and  when  the  new  con- 
stitution was  promulgated  in  1889,  his  wife  rode  by 
his  side.  Yet  it  should  be  added  that  his  heir,  the 
present  ruler,  was  not  the  son  of  his  empress,  and 
when  he  celebrated  his  silver  wedding  anniversary, 
an  addition  was  made  to  the  royal  household.  A 
military  officer  once  expressed  the  hope  that  the 
prince  would  set  a  better  example. 

The  seven  causes  for  divorce  mentioned  under 
China  hold  in  Japan  also,  and  the  seventh  reason, 
that  of  talking  too  much,  is  the  most  common 
ground,  or  so  it  was  alleged  some  years  ago.  The 
result  of  this  laxity  in  the  divorce  laws  was  seen  in 
1891,  when  there  were  345  divorces  for  every  thou- 
sand marriages.1  This  proportion  was  nearly  fif- 
teen times  that  in  France  for  the  same  year,  where 
it  was  only  twenty-four  per  thousand.  During  the 
last  twenty  years  the  proportion  has  diminished  to 
a  marked  degree.  The  new  edition  of  the  "  Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica"  gives  it  as  160  per  1,000. 
Even  now,  in  Japan,  a  civil  or  religious  ceremony  is 
not  required  for  marriage.  All  that  is  necessary  is 
for  a  couple  to  begin  to  live  together.  If  pregnancy 
ensues  and  the  parties  are  satisfied  with  one  another, 
before  the  child  is  born,  the  marriage  is  registered. 
Otherwise,  they  may  separate,  the  girl  is  sent  back 
1  Dennis,  J.  S.,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  I,  p.  117. 


114    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

to  her  parents,  and  such  a  case  does  not  enter  into 
the  statistics  of  divorce  because  there  was  never  a 
marriage.  About  half  the  marriages,  it  is  alleged, 
are  begun  in  this  informal  way.  Until  recently, 
also,  woman  has  been  kept  in  ignorance.  Thus, 
Count  Okuma  declared  a  few  years  ago,  "  Hereto- 
fore the  education  of  women  has  been  very  much 
discouraged."  This  is  now  entirely  changed,  and 
six  years  of  education  are  now  prescribed  for  every 
girl  equally  with  the  boys. 

Such  are  some  of  the  facts  regarding  the  position 
which  woman  occupied  in  non-Christian  lands  be- 
fore it  was  modified  by  Christian  and  other  Western 
influence.  One  of  the  first  things  the  missionaries 
undertook  was  Christian  education,  and  as  soon  as 
possible  this  was  offered  to  girls  a^  well  as  to  boys. 
In  the  beginning,  parents  had  to  be  hired  to  permit 
their  children,  and  especially  their  daughters,  to 
attend  school,  and  one  worthy  gentleman  of  Calcutta 
exclaimed,  "  They  will  be  educating  our  cows  next, 
now  that  they  are  trying  to  teach  our  girls."  From 
small  beginnings  the  work  of  Christian  education 
for  women  has  spread  until  schools  are  found  in  all 
mission  fields.  They  range  all  the  way  from  kinder- 
gartens and  primary  day  schools  up  to  colleges  and 
professional  schools.  This  is  not  to  claim  that  all 
the  schools  which  are  called  colleges  are  doing  true 
college  work,  and  it  is  to  be  doubted  whether  any 
such  institution  on  the  mission  field  offers  four  years 
of  what  American  educators  would  regard  as  col- 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     1 15 

lege  work.  Nevertheless,  these  schools  are  work- 
ing up  towards  it  as  rapidly  as  funds  permit  and  as 
their  constituents  are  prepared  for  such  education. 

The  latest  missionary  statistics  do  not  accurately 
differentiate  the  students  between  the  sexes  and  do 
not  specify  the  schools  which  admit  girls  or  women. 
All  that  can  be  asserted  is  that  at  the  present  time, 
in  all  mission  fields,  there  are  at  least  the  following 
numbers  of  girls  and  women  under  instruction : 

In  college  and  university  classes 427 

In  theological  and  normal  schools  and  classes  .     3,256 

In  boarding  and  high  schools 41,313 

In  industrial  training  schools  and  classes   ....   5,414 

In  elementary  and  village  schools 259,639 

In  kindergartens 1,751 

In  medical  classes 136 

In  nurses'  classes 515 

Total 312,451* 

From  these  schools  are  being  graduated  year  by 
year  the  women  who  become  teachers  in  the  Chris- 
tian schools,  Bible  women,  wives  of  native  Christian 
workers,  and,  in  short,  those  who  are  destined  to  be 
leaders  in  the  emancipation  of  their  sex. 

No  one  who  has  seen  these  schools  in  operation 
can  fail  to  be  impressed  by  their  value.  Not  that 
they  are  above  criticism,  any  more  than  are  similar 
schools  in  England  or  the  United  States.  In  those 
countries  or  among  those  classes  where  cleanliness 
of  person  and  modesty  of  costume  are  not  common, 


1  Dennis,  et  al.,  op.  tit.,  p.  83. 


Ii6    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

neatness  and  decency  are  so  thoroughly  inculcated 
that  they  become  a  part  of  the  girls  in  after  life. 
The  contrast  between  an  African  woman,  whose 
costume  consists  chiefly  of  grease  and  dirt,  and  the 
Christian  schoolgirl  can  hardly  be  imagined ;  it 
must  be  seen  to  be  understood.  I  well  remember 
our  journey  across  Batakland  in  Sumatra.  On  the 
east  of  the  Toba  Sea  the  Bataks,  especially  the 
women,  looked  more  animal  than  human.  Here 
no  Christian  schools  had  been  established.  Then, 
as  we  journeyed  west,  we  began  to  note  a  change 
until,  when  we  had  reached  Silindong,  which  is 
thoroughly  evangelized,  the  whole  appearance  was 
that  of  intelligent  men  and  women. 

This  latter  effect  of  education  is  universal.  The 
uneducated  non-Christian  woman  has  few  interests 
outside  of  the  home.  Her  intellectual  life  is  almost 
negligible.  Her  Christian-trained  sister,  on  the 
other  hand,  while  no  less  devoted  to  her  home,  takes 
an  intelligent  interest  in  life  and  is  in  consequence 
a  more  efficient  wife  and  mother.  The  vacant  ex- 
pression has  given  place  to  one  of  alert  intelligence. 
Their  aesthetic  sense  is  developed,  and  above  all 
they  are  aroused  morally,  and  made  to  realize  that 
they  are  not  things  but  self-respecting  individuals, 
who  are.  as  precious  in  God's  sight  as  their  fathers, 
brothers,  or  husbands.  All  schools,  even  the 
primary  schools,  have  something  of  this  effect,  and 
the  higher  schools  and  colleges,  like  the  girls' 
colleges  in  Smyrna,  Cairo,  Lucknow,  Peking,  Kobe, 
and  Tokyo, — not  to  mention  others, — are  training 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     1 1 7 

girls  who  can  be  leaders  of  their  sex  in  the  ef- 
fort to  realize  their  inherent  God-given  possi- 
bilities. 

Not  in  all  countries  are  the  girls  permitted  to 
attend  the  ordinary  school,  and  in  India,  for  instance, 
even  those  who  are  permitted  to  enter  must  soon 
leave  in  order  to  found  new  homes.  To  meet  the 
needs  of  such  women,  there  are  a  few  schools  which 
admit  girls  without  compelling  them  to  violate  the 
time-honoured  customs  of  society.  The  principal 
means,  however,  of  helping  such  social  prisoners  is 
through  the  labours  of  the  unmarried  evangelistic 
women  missionaries  and  Bible  women,  who  visit 
them  in  their  homes  and  teach  them  regarding 
Christ  and  His  message  for  womanhood. 

Beside  this  work  of  Christian  education  must  be 
placed  the  example  of  the  Christian  home.  While 
the  relations  between  the  members  of  a  Christian 
household  at  times  excite  the  disgust  of  prejudiced 
gentlemen  of  the  old  school,  who  claim  that  the 
Indian  home,  for  example,  is  the  most  nearly  per- 
fect home  in  the  world,  yet  the  power  of  the  Chris- 
tian home  is  marked  everywhere.  There  are  argu- 
ments that  may  be  adduced  for  a  celibate  missionary 
force,  and  they  are  not  to  be  dismissed  without  con- 
sideration. Indeed,  there  may  be  circumstances 
under  which  the  single  missionary  is  more  efficient 
than  a  married  man.  This  is  true  particularly  in 
pioneer  work  and  amid  unhealthy  surroundings. 
But  when  all  due  allowance  has  been  made,  it  yet 
remains  that  the  Christian  home  is  one  of  the  most 


1 18    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

powerful  Christianizing  influences  in  mission  lands. 
In  its  peace,  in  the  beauty  of  the  relationships  be- 
tween husband  and  wife  and  between  parent  and 
child,  and  in  the  whole  atmosphere,  there  are  ele- 
ments of  purity  and  of  uplift  that  no  country  ever 
knows  apart  from  the  influence  of  Christianity.  A 
missionary  in  Tokyo  declared  some  years  since  that 
many  who  did  not  know  English  had  come  to  un- 
derstand and  use  the  phrase  "  Christian  home  "  as 
an  expression  for  an  ideal  household. 

A  few  years  ago  a  cultivated  Christian  woman 
went  to  China  as  a  bride.  After  a  short  period, 
and  before  she  had  begun  to  do  any  real  missionary 
work,  her  health  failed  and  for  years  she  hardly 
left  her  home.  Yet  at  her  death,  it  transpired  that 
she  had  exerted  a  mighty  influence  over  the  whole 
region.  Her  patience  in  suffering,  the  peace  and 
beauty  of  the  home  life,  even  the  attractiveness  of 
the  home  itself,  had  so  impressed  the  servants  and 
all  who  had  occasion  to  enter  the  home,  that  they 
had  spread  the  story  far  and  wide.  People  had 
even  peeped  through  the  shutters  into  the  house 
after  dark,  although  only  the  servants  were  aware 
of  it,  in  order  to  see  something  of  this  Christian 
home.  The  shut-in  invalid  had  through  the  home 
been  making  the  appeal  of  a  Christlike  life  known 
to  persons  who  might  never  hear  a  sermon. 

In  addition  to  these  two  lines  of  approach,  the 
missionary  has  often  taken  the  lead  in  the  agitation 
against  the  worst  abuses  of  which  woman  is  the 
victim  and  has  succeeded  in  many  instances  in  mit- 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     119 

igating,  if  not  in  abolishing,  some  of  the  sad  features 
of  her  social  treatment. 

The  effect  of  Western  influence,  missionary  and 
other,  upon  the  position  of  woman,  has  been  marked, 
in  some  places  revolutionary. 

A  few  instances  from  Africa  and  the  Pacific 
Islands  will  indicate  the  direction  and  the  degree 
of  the  progress.  In  Uganda  it  was  formerly  a 
source  of  shame  for  a  man  not  to  have  a  large  num- 
ber of  women  to  cultivate  his  land.  Now  it  is  a 
cause  for  shame  to  have  more  than  one  wife,  and 
this  is  the  direct  result  of  Christian  influence.  In 
Khama's  country,  likewise,  Christianity  has  stopped 
polygamy.  Khama's  wife  is  a  queenly  woman  with 
all  the  grace  of  a  princess,  while  her  face  reflects 
her  beautiful  Christian  character.  Her  home,  which 
she  built  with  her  own  hands,  is  in  native  style,  but 
is  attractively  decorated  and  is  scrupulously  neat. 
In  the  South  Seas,  where  women  were  formerly 
downtrodden,  they  have  become  able  to  hold  their 
own.  The  wives  of  the  two  most  remarkable  native 
missionaries  sent  to  New  Guinea  were  able  to  con- 
duct the  Sunday  and  week-day  services,  preach  ac- 
ceptably, and  carry  on  the  schools  whenever  their 
husbands  were  prostrated  with  fever.  At  the  same 
time,  they  were  good  housewives. 

The  difference  between  the  home  of  a  heathen 
Zulu  and  a  Christian  Zulu  is  like  that  between  light 
and  darkness.  The  number  of  the  Zulu's  wives  is 
indicated  by  the  number  of  huts  within  the  kraal. 
Inside  the  hut  there  is  neither  light  nor  air,  save 


120    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

what  can  get  in  through  the  low  door,  or  the  vent 
hole  for  the  smoke,  which  blackens  everything. 
All  clothing  is  discarded  inside  and  the  ground 
serves  for  chairs.  Dogs  and  small  domestic  animals 
have  free  access  to  everything  and  there  is  nothing 
to  be  damaged  among  the  simple  storage  and  cook- 
ing utensils.  The  Christian  home,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  open  to  light  and  air.  Compared  with  the 
hut,  it  is  cleanliness  itself.  A  few  books,  perhaps  a 
sewing-machine  and  portable  organ,  not  to  mention 
the  ordinary  furnishings  of  a  Christian  home,  are  in 
evidence. 

Another  field  which  the  Christian  home  has  en- 
tered is  Sumatra.  No  longer  do  Christians  live  as 
they  used  to  in  common  houses.  In  the  village  of 
Purba  Saribu,  which  had  hardly  been  touched  by 
the  Gospel,  we  saw  the  old  home  life  in  full  swing. 
From  eight  to  twelve  families  lived  in  a  single 
house,  rectangular  in  shape,  without  partitions,  each 
family  being  assigned  to  a  certain  section  of  the 
floor  on  either  side  of  the  open  passageway,  which 
extended  from  end  to  end.  The  four  corners  were 
the  honourable  places,  in  a  certain  fixed  order. 
There  was  no  chance  for  privacy  save  that  furnished 
by  the  semi-darkness.  The  Christians,  on  the  other 
hand,  live  in  comfortable  dwellings,  one  family  to 
a  house. 

The  effect  is  the  same  whether  in  Sumatra,  Zulu- 
land,  Bechuanaland,  or  Uganda.  The  Christian 
home  is  unique  and  attests  the  power  of  Chris- 
tianity. 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life    1 2 1 

The  position  of  woman  likewise  changes.  A 
traveller  passing  along  the  paths  in  parts  of  Africa 
is  able  not  only  to  tell  from  the  appearance  whether 
a  village  is  Christian  or  heathen,  but  often  also  to 
gauge  accurately  the  religion  of  the  passers-by.  If 
one  sees  a  family  walking  along  the  trail  or  road 
with  the  man  carrying  the  bundles,  one  can  safely 
conclude  that  he  is  a  Christian,  especially  if  his 
wife  is  with  him  and  is  treated  as  his  equal.  The 
non-Christian  would  naturally  stalk  on  ahead  and 
leave  his  wife,  that  is,  his  servant,  to  manage  the 
baggage  and  supervise  the  children  as  best  she 
could.  Such  an  incident  is  typical  of  the  new 
status  which  Christianity  accords  to  woman. 

These  are  instances  of  the  change  in  regions 
where  Christianity  has  had  an  effect  quantitatively 
greater  than  it  has  had  in  a  country  like  India, 
where  the  vast  majority  are  still  beyond  the  direct 
and  positive  influence  of  the  Gospel.  Qualitatively, 
however,  the  change  in  India  is  equally  great,  per- 
haps even  greater,  and  it  has  spread  far  beyond 
circles  which  are  even  remotely  identified  with 
Christianity. 

Take,  for  example,  the  matter  of  the  creation  of 
a  public  sentiment  that  demands  a  change.  Such 
statements  as  these  from  influential  native  sources 
are  indications  of  what  Christian  influences  are 
doing : 

"  Nor  can  a  people  who  treat  their  women  as  if 
they  were  intended  for  no  higher  duties  than  the 
personal  service  of  their  husbands,  and  who  heart- 


122    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

lessly  consign  their  unfortunate  widows  to  a  lot  of 
perpetual  privation,  show  much  chivalry,  generosity, 
sympathy  with  the  weak,  self-sacrifice,  dignity  of 
family  life."  ■ 

The  Hindu  is  one  of  the  most  influential  journals 
in  South  India.  It  is  in  no  sense  a  Christian  organ, 
and  yet  as  long  ago  as  September,  1888,  it  was 
publishing  such  statements  as  this : 

"  There  is  one  evil  which  is  a  standing  hindrance 
to  reforms  of  every  kind,  and  if  that  is  remedied 
the  natural  aptitudes  of  the  nation  will  receive  an 
unchecked  stimulus  towards  development  in  all 
directions.  We  mean  the  present  degraded  condi- 
tion of  our  women.  ...  It  will  be  no  patriot- 
ism but  foolish  and  ruinous  vanity  to  assert  that 
women  in  India  are  now  in  that  condition  which 
enables  them  in  other  countries  to  exert  vast  in- 
fluence on  the  character  and  life  of  the  nation  as 
well  as  of  the  individual.  The  hard  and  unreason- 
able marriage  laws,  their  seclusion  and  their  igno- 
rance have  made  them  entirely  unfit  for  the  exercise 
of  that  elevating  and  chastening  privilege  which  is 
theirs  by  nature.  The  character  of  the  nation  is 
formed  by  its  youths,  and  the  character  of  the 
youths  is  formed  at  home  by  their  mothers.  .  .  . 
If  our  country  too  should  produce  its  patriots, 
warriors  and  statesmen,  our  mothers  should  receive 
a  different  training  and  should  be  given  a  different 
lot  from  what  are  deemed  to  be  appropriate  to  them 
at  present.     The  kitchen  would  cease  to  be  their 

1  Chintamani,  op.  cit.f  p.  347. 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     123 

world,  the  priests  should  cease  to  be  their  moral 
preceptors;  cruel  marriage  laws  should  cease  to 
rob  them  of  their  youth,  and  their  minds  should  be 
opened  by  a  high  and  liberal  education."  ■ 

These  reformers  recognize  the  impossibility  of 
raising  a  nation  by  improving  the  condition  of  only 
one-half  of  the  population.  A  member  of  the  Im- 
perial Legislative  Council  of  Madras  declared : 

"  One  serious  drawback  ...  is  that  in 
these  .  .  .  matters  the  effort  has  been,  almost 
solely,  on  the  part  of  males ;  and  it  is  a  feeling 
which  I  cannot  get  rid  of,  that,  so  long  as  this  is 
the  case,  so  long  shall  we  be  working  as  with  a 
lever  without  the  fulcrum.  A  good  percentage  or 
a  strong  contingent  of  self-reliant,  self-respecting 
and — let  me  add — self-assertive  womanhood  is  what 
I  look  upon  as  that  fulcrum ;  and  it  is  my  convic- 
tion that,  with  them  for  co-workers  and — if  I  may 
say  so — for  active  and  belligerent  malcontents,  the 
rate  and  amount  of  success  ought  to  astound  the 
sceptic  and  sanguine  alike." 2 

With  such  a  change  in  public  sentiment,  it 
naturally  follows  that  there  has  been  progress  in 
the  removal  of  disabilities.  Woman  in  the  old 
days  was  kept  in  utter  ignorance.  To-day  the 
leaders  are  seeing  the  importance,  yes,  the  necessity, 
of  giving  her  an  education.  Statistics  for  1911,  al- 
ready quoted,  gave  the  number  of  schools  for 
females  as  15,038  and  the  number  of  female  scholars 

1  Murdoch,  op.  cit.,  p.  1  et  seq. 
*  Chintamanij  op.  cit.}  p.  29. 


124    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

as  873,53s.1  These  figures  indicate  to  what  extent 
India  is  beginning  to  move  in  the  direction  of 
education  for  all  her  women.  Even  the  Moslems 
in  India  are  awaking  to  this  necessity,  and  they 
are  securing  schools  for  their  daughters. 

To  be  sure,  the  motive  may  not  always  be  the 
highest.  Thus,  in  a  city  of  north  India  there  was 
an  Indian  gentleman  of  the  highest  social  standing 
whom  I  met  in  1908.  He  had  been  a  leader  in  an 
agitation  which  resulted  in  the  city's  opening  a 
high  grade  school  for  girls.  A  most  excellent  step 
this  was,  but  after  the  school  was  running  and  was 
being  patronized  by  the  best  families,  the  gentle- 
man gave  away  the  secret.  He  had  held  advanced 
ideas  concerning  the  education  of  girls  and  had  been 
scored  by  his  less  progressive  friends  for  sending  his 
daughters  to  school.  He  resolved  to  get  his  revenge. 
He  knew  that  if  the  municipality  should  open  a 
school,  all  these  men  would  patronize  it.  Hence,  as 
a  member  of  the  municipal  government,  he  put  the 
measure  through,  largely  in  order  that  he  might 
have  the  satisfaction  of  sitting  in  his  home  and 
watching  the  daughters  of  his  detractors  pass  by 
on  their  way  to  school.  Thus  do  various  motives 
cooperate  in  bringing  in  the  new  day. 

Another  evil  which  has  been  attacked  by  re- 
formers, missionary  and  Indian,  has  been  that  of  the 
marriage  age  and  the  age  of  consent.  In  this  mat- 
ter the  native  Christian  community  has  been  a 
standing  protest  against  too  early  marriages,  for 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life    125 

they  have  not  married  their  daughters  so  early  as 
the  non-Christians.  All  progress  in  the  education 
of  woman  tends  to  postpone  the  date  of  marriage. 
A  Hindu  reformer  stated  some  years  since  that  in 
the  peninsula  of  India  the  age  at  which  the 
Brahmans  married  their  daughters  thirty  years  be- 
fore had  been  from  seven  to  eight ;  within  that 
period  it  had  been  pushed  up  to  from  ten  to 
twelve  ;  and  some  had  even  delayed  the  marriage 
beyond  the  age  of  twelve  and  done  it  without  in- 
curring any  reproach.  In  1889,  the  Bombay  Social 
Conference  recommended  that  the  penal  code  be 
ameuded  so  as  to  protect  all  girls,  whether  married 
or  unmarried,  until  they  reached  the  age  of  twelve, 
a  violation  to  be  punishable  as  a  felony.  This  be- 
came the  law  two  years  later.  The  Maharajah  of 
Mysore,  the  second  in  importance  among  the  native 
states,  had  a  law  enacted  in  1893  that  a  girl  below 
eight  or  a  boy  below  fourteen  was  to  be  regarded 
as  an  infant,  and  any  person  who  caused,  aided,  or 
abetted  the  marriage  of  such  an  infant  was  to  be 
imprisoned  for  not  more  than  six  months  or  fined 
not  more  than  Bs.  500,  or  both.  The  same  penalty 
was  prescribed  for  a  man  above  eighteen  who  should 
marry  an  infant  girl.  A  man  over  fifty  who  mar- 
ried a  girl  under  fourteen  was  to  be  liable  to  two 
years'  imprisonment.  From  that  day  to  this,  the 
agitation  has  been  kept  up,  and  progress  has  been 
made  in  the  direction  of  raising  the  marriage  age  to 
a  decent  point. 

How  slow  it  has  been  may  be  surmised  from  the 


126    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

reception  given  two  bills  introduced  in  1898  into  the 
legislative  council  of  the  Madras  Presidency.  One 
made  a  man  liable  to  criminal  prosecution  for 
violating  an  age  of  ten  for  girls  ;  the  other  pre- 
scribed imprisonment  or  fine  as  a  penalty  for  violat- 
ing an  age  limit  of  eight.  These  were  strenuously 
opposed  because  they  were  thought  to  be  too  far  in 
advance  of  public  sentiment. 

The  Parsees  have  secured  special  legislation,  mak- 
ing fourteen  the  legal  age  for  them.  The  Brahma- 
Sainaj,  in  1872,  secured  a  law  establishing  the  ages 
of  eighteen  and  fourteen  as  the  marriage  age,  and 
requiring  the  written  consent  of  the  parents  for 
the  marriage  of  any  person  under  twenty-one. 

This  whole  agitation  was  started  in  1856  by  Dr. 
Che  vers,  who  showed  the  inadequacy  of  the  protec- 
tion afforded  child  wives.  Matters  came  to  a  crisis 
in  1890,  when  a  little  girl  of  twelve  died  in  hor- 
rible agony  because  of  the  treatment  given  her  by 
her  husband,  who  was  imprisoned  for  a  year. 

The  abolition  of  sati  was  due  to  the  efforts 
initiated  by  William  Carey.  As  early  as  1799,  he 
entered  an  energetic  protest  against  its  farther 
toleration  by  the  government.  Had  there  not  been 
a  change  in  governors,  sati  would  have  been 
abolished  in  1808.  The  first  regulations  restricting 
the  practice  were  passed  in  1812  and  1817,  but  it 
was  not  until  1829  that  Lord  Bentinck  issued  an 
order  which  declared  sati  to  be  culpable  homicide, 
and  threatened  severe  penalties  on  all  who  encour- 
aged it  or  in  any  way  assisted  at  the  ceremony. 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     1 27 

Carey  absented  himself  from  church  one  Sunday 
morning  in  order  the  sooner  to  translate  Lord  Ben- 
tinck's  order  and  have  it  issued,  lest  any  delay  might 
sacrifice  a  widow's  life.  This  act  of  1829  applied 
only  to  British  India.  As  late  as  1880  isolated 
cases  of  sati  were  heard  of.  ISTo  sooner  was  the 
abolition  regulation  of  1829  promulgated  than  in 
Bengal  a  monster  petition,  representing  some  of  the 
best  families  and  containing  18,000  names,  was 
presented  for  its  withdrawal.  In  all  this  agitation 
Carey  and  the  missionaries  had  the  active  assist- 
ance of  natives,  especially  of  the  pioneer  Hindu 
religious  reformer,  a  Brahman,  Kaja  Earn  Mohan 
Koy. 

The  next  object  of  attack  was  the  prohibition  of 
widow  remarriage.  Under  the  lead  of  a  native  re- 
former, this  agitation  was  maintained  until,  in 
1856,  the  Widow  Marriage  Act  was  passed,  which 
legalized  the  status  of  Hindu  widows  who  had  con- 
tracted a  second  marriage  and  declared  their  chil- 
dren legitimate.  At  the  same  time,  the  law  did 
not  protect  them  in  their  civil  rights.  They  still 
forfeited  all  property  inherited  from  the  husband 
and  were  not  afforded  sufficient  protection  for  their 
own  private  property.  The  first  public  widow 
marriage  ceremony  in  Bengal  was  performed  in 
Calcutta  in  1865.  Four  years  later  came  the  first 
such  marriage  in  Bombay.  Since  that  day  progress 
has  been  made,  but  even  now  the  cases  are  rare 
enough  to  excite  much  attention. 

Thus,  along  these  various  lines,  there  has  been 


128    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

marked  improvement  in  public  sentiment  and  in 
the  legal  status  of  women  in  India. 

The  women  of  China  are  coming  to  the  front. 
The  impression  made  by  the  Christian  home  has 
been  profound.  The  Christians  are  not  permitted 
to  marry  their  daughters  to  men  of  bad  character, 
to  dispose  of  them  as  second  wives  or  concubines, 
or  to  force  them  upon  men  to  whom  for  moral 
reasons  the  girls  feel  an  antipathy.  A  Christian 
who  abuses  his  wife,  divorces  her  for  more  than 
one  cause,  or  takes  a  second  wife,  incurs  church 
discipline.  Non-Christians  have  been  impressed 
with  the  desirability  of  securing  Christian  girls  for 
wives.  The  influence  of  the  Christian  family  in 
purifying  and  elevating  social  life  has  been  ac- 
knowledged, for  instance,  by  non-Christians  in 
Hong  Kong.  A  missionary  in  Shantung  testified, 
long  before  the  present  movements  began,  that  it 
was  common  to  hear  outsiders  comment  admiringly 
upon  the  improvement  in  the  Christian  women. 
As  a  result,  native  ideas  regarding  the  rights  and 
capabilities  of  women  steadily  changed.  Some 
years  ago,  a  man  in  Hankow  came  to  a  missionary 
and  brought  him  his  idol,  the  god  of  riches,  with 
the  explanation :  "  We  never  have  any  peace  in 
our  house.  I  am  told  if  I  give  up  idols  and  be- 
lieve on  Jesus  my  home  will  become  a  little  heaven 
on  earth.     Here  is  my  idol." 

Christian  women  have  come  to  the  front  as  lead- 
ers.    There    are    several    fine    Christian    women 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     129 

physicians,  the  first  of  whom  was  graduated  in 
New  York  at  the  head  of  her  class  in  1885.  The 
example  of  the  Christians  in  securing  education  for 
their  daughters  has  influenced  leading  women  in 
China.  One  sister  of  Prince  Su  some  years  ago 
opened  the  first  school  for  girls  in  Mongolia,  while 
the  other  sister  started  the  first  purely  Chinese 
school  for  girls  in  Peking,  which  soon  had  nearly 
one  hundred  pupils  from  the  highest  families.  She 
undertook  the  work  in  spite  of  opposition  and 
ridicule,  and  declared  to  the  missionary  ladies  that 
but  for  them  this  school  would  never  have  been. 

The  first  woman's  daily  paper  in  the  world  was 
started  by  a  Chinese  woman  of  means  in  Peking, 
and  was  published  until  funds  failed.  Women's 
clubs  have  been  opened.  One  of  these,  in  Ningpo, 
has  had  a  flourishing  existence  and  has  discussed 
such  weighty  and  knotty  problems  as  that  of  foreign 
loans  for  railway  development.  In  Peking,  under 
the  lead  of  lady  missionaries,  lectures  were  given 
for  the  benefit  of  the  women  of  the  aristocracy, 
and  this  did  much  to  open  them  to  Christian  in- 
fluence as  well  as  prepare  them  for  the  part  they 
were  destined  to  play  in  the  New  China. 

In  the  revolution  which  overthrew  the  Manchus, 
and  which  was  so  largely  the  work  of  the  young 
men  who  had  studied  in  Japan  or  in  the  United 
States  or  Europe,  the  young  women  were  actively 
interested.  The  students  in  the  Girls'  College  at 
Ponasang,  Foochow,  were  on  fire  with  zeal. 
Several  of  them  joined  the  "  Dare-to-Die  Society," 


130    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

and  started  for  the  north  to  die  for  their  country. 
"When  they  were  urged  to  return  home,  they  de- 
clared :  "  We  are  Christians.  Jesus  died  to  save 
His  people,  and  we  will  die  for  China."  In  these 
last  few  years,  there  has  appeared  in  China,  and  to 
a  less  extent  in  other  Oriental  countries,  the  New 
Woman,  who  is  even  more  outre  in  China  than  in 
America.  Women  have  come  to  a  new  conscious- 
ness of  their  power.  They  have  been  given  greater 
liberty  and  have  tasted  the  sweets  of  it,  and  a  few 
have  desired  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  their 
Western  sisters  and  live  an  independent  life. 

Unfortunately,  they  have  not  grown  into  this 
liberty  gradually  and  so  they  tend  to  confuse  it 
with  license.  Friends  in  China  have  given  me  in- 
stances that  fell  under  their  own  observation  of 
the  boldness  of  these  new  women,  which  would  be 
marked  and  would  excite  unfavourable  comment 
even  in  one  of  our  cities.  Judge  of  the  impression 
produced  by  such  actions  in  the  midst  of  a  most 
conservative  civilization,  in  which  for  generations 
women  have  been  kept  in  the  background  as  in- 
feriors. Such  tendencies  are  apt  to  bring  into  re- 
proach the  whole  cause  of  progress  along  Western 
lines,  and  the  work  of  education  to  which  such  re- 
sults are  attributed.  Needless  to  add,  these  ex- 
treme cases  are  not  Christian  women. 

The  change  in  Japan  with  regard  to  the  position 
of  woman  has  been  very  marked.  We  have  already 
noted  that  Miss  Japan  is  being  educated  alongside 
of  her  brother.    Women  are  beginning  to  assert 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     131 

their  rights  as  women.  In  1902,  they  began  to  pro- 
test against  the  use  of  the  humiliating  word  sho, 
concubine.  Partly  because  foreigners  are  begin- 
ning to  read  and  interpret  Japanese  books,  the  word 
was  purposely  omitted  from  the  statute  entitled 
"  Family  Law."  The  difficulty  is  that  this  word  is 
rooted  in  Japanese  customs  so  firmly  that,  as 
writers  declare,  "  really  there  is  no  other  way  for  a 
woman  to  talk  of  herself."  Even  the  abuse  of 
men,  which  is  indulged  in  by  a  certain  type  of  the 
New  Woman,  has  spread  to  Japan.  Last  year  a 
woman's  magazine  was  started  by  discontented 
women,  the  contents  of  which  are  of  this  nature. 
This  is  but  one  sign  of  the  revolt  of  the  women  of 
Japan,  which  will  have  serious  consequences  unless 
Christian  standards  can  be  enforced.1 

1  "  It  is  a  statement  heard  again  and  again  that  the  influence  of 
the  new  life  has  been  detrimental  for  women  morally  and  spiri- 
tually. People  who  remember  the  old  regime  are  unanimous  in 
deploring  the  lowering  effects  of  the  present  conditions  on  both 
men  and  women,  the  change  being  shown  perhaps  in  women 
more  conspicuously  of  late  than  in  men.  The  criticisms  made 
are  that  women  have  grown  less  refined,  less  faithful  to  duty, 
that  they  are  selfish,  luxurious,  vain  and  fond  of  display.  The 
simple  Spartan  life  of  the  past  has  vanished,  and  nothing  of  true 
worth  has  taken  its  place.  But  the  careful  thinker  will  add,  no 
doubt,  that  the  present  apparent  retrograde  condition  is  probably 
temporary.  Women  who  in  the  past  were  kept  from  contact 
with  the  world  are  now  meeting  all  its  allurements ;  whereas 
little  power  was  in  their  hands,  and  they  were  fully  protected 
from  temptation,  they  are  now  obliged  through  circumstances  to 
act  for  themselves.  The  old-time  conservative  training  and 
teaching  do  not  touch  the  new  conditions  of  life.  .  .  .  Im- 
pulses are  now  being  set  free  which  were  held  in  check  in  the 


132    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

During  the  war  between  Japan  and  China,  the 
value  of  the  Christian  home  was  impressed  upon  the 
nation.  For  nearly  three  years  the  soldiers  were 
separated  from  their  wives  and  families.  Many 
wives,  it  was  reported,  brought  disgrace  upon  their 
families,  and  even  used  the  savings  sent  them  for 
abominable  purposes.  During  this  period,  the 
Christian  wives  of  the  Christian  soldiers  kept  their 
homes  pure,  performed  their  duties  towards  their 
husbands'  parents,  and  attended  to  the  education  of 
their  children.  Regarding  not  a  single  one  was 
there  any  report  of  misconduct.  Concubinage  used 
to  be  respectable.  Now  it  is  coming  to  hide  itself. 
Formerly  husband  and  wife  were  never  seen  to- 
gether.    Now  they  may  be  observed  walking  and 

past  by  external  forces,  while  there  is  yet  lacking  judgment  and 
knowledge  of  true  values,  and  restraint  from  within,  to  guide  the 
awakened  mind.     .     .     . 

"Theoretically,  the  ordinary  woman  not  under  Christian 
teachings  is  now  taught,  in  schools  and  by  masters  and  parents, 
ethical  standards  not  greatly  changed  from  past  ones.  She  is 
more  or  less  all  her  life  to  be  under  the  guidance  of  others,  she  is 
not  to  be  given  the  freedom  of  thought  or  action  which  Western 
women  take  for  granted,  her  life  is  to  be  in  the  home  and  for  the 
family  ;  but  in  reality  the  life  she  often  has  to  lead,  through 
new  conditions  or  from  financial  neoessity,  calls  for  more  recog- 
nition of  her  worth  and  individuality.  The  old  teachings  alone 
are  not  sufficient  for  the  future  Japanese  woman,!;  there  must  be 
more  acknowledgment  of  her  place  and  true  value. 

******* 

"What  part  has  Christianity  among  these  conditions  ?  The 
answer  is  almost  too  apparent  to  need  statement.  The  restraints 
formed  under  the  feudal  days,  together  with  many  of  the  teach- 
ings of  the  past,  are  going  rapidly  by  with  the  changing  times. 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     133 

talking  together  and  even  riding  in  the  same  jin- 
ricksha, so  it  is  declared. 

In  all  this  movement,  the  sane  leadership  has 
been  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  Christian  women 
of  these  lands,  who  have  revealed  to  the  world  both 
the  beauty  and  the  power  of  an  educated  and  con- 
secrated womanhood.  Take  India  as  an  example. 
The  Christian  community  has  produced  a  group  of 
women  who  have  shown  the  possibilities  of  develop- 
ment inherent  in  Indian  womanhood.  The  In- 
dian Christian  Messenger,  a  few  years  ago,  printed 
the  following  paragraph : 

"  Who  was  the  first  Indian  lady  that  graduated  in 
Arts  ?  Miss  Chundra  M.  Bose,  a  Christian.  "Who 
was  the  first  Indian  lady  that  graduated  in  medicine  ? 

They  will  mostly  pass  away  with  the  older  generation,  of  whom 
few  remain.  The  old  religions  have  little  ethical  influence  and 
only  a  feeble  hold  at  best  on  modern  men  and  women.  Chris- 
tianity will  not  replace  them  but  rather  fill  a  void.  Japan  is 
singularly  ready  for  all  the  ethical  ideals  of  Christianity  in  all 
points,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  those  concerning  patriotism 
and  filial  duty.  Christianity  especially  fills  the  needs  of  women 
at  this  time  of  awakening.  The  glamour  of  Western  life  and  the 
freedom  of  the  women  of  the  West  attract  them.  They  seek  it 
without  a  knowledge  of  those  deeper  things  that  make  freedom  a 
blessing.  Buddhism  gave  to  woman  humility,  but  at  the  price 
of  self-effacement  and  degradation,  not  by  the  teaching  of  lofty 
ideals  for  her.  It  took  away  her  individuality,  even  her  soul. 
.  .  .  Christianity  places  woman  on  a  level  with  man  ;  her 
individuality  and  worth  in  herself  is  recognized  and  full  scope  is 
given  to  her  powers.  At  the  same  time  by  teaching  self-sacrifice 
and  service  founded  on  the  higher,  broader  ideal  of  love  for 
others,  it  replaces  the  narrow  old  standard  of  self-sacrifice  for  the 


134    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

Miss  Mary  Mitter  (now  Mrs.  Nundy),  a  Christian. 
Who  was  the  first  Indian  lady  that  graduated  in 
law  ?  Miss  Cornelia  Sorabji,  a  Christian.  Who 
was  the  first  Indian  lady  that  encompassed  the 
wide,  wide  world,  both  old  and  new,  in  search  of 
knowledge  and  means  for  the  amelioration  of  the 
condition  of  millions  of  Indian  widows  ?  Pundita 
Ramabai,  a  Christian.  Who  are  as  yet  the  only 
Indian  ladies  whose  writings  have  earned  the 
approbation  of  European  critics  ?  Miss  Toru  Dutt 
and  Mrs.  S.  Satthianadhan,  Christian  ladies.  Who 
have  rendered  signal  help  towards  making  an  ac- 
complished fact  that  eminently  Christian  movement 
for  which  millions  of  Indian  females  bless  the 
honoured  name  of  Lady  Dufferin  ?  The  Indian 
Christian  girls.  Confining  ourselves  to  our  own 
North-West  Provinces  and  Oudh,  we  may  well  con- 
tinue :  Who  was  the  lady  that  first  graduated  as 
M.  A.  ?  Miss  S.  Chuckerbutty,  a  Christian.  Who 
was  the  lady  that  attained  a  position  hitherto  un- 
surpassed by  any  lady  candidate  amongst  M.  A. 
candidates  of  the  Allahabad  University?  Miss 
Lilavati  Rapheal  Singh,  a  Christian.  Who  was  the 
first  lady  in  Bengal  that  graduated  in  two  subjects 

good  of  one's  family.  While  not  laying  such  stress  on  efforts  for 
family,  olan  or  country,  it  inculcates,  with  a  higher  motive  and 
on  broader  lines,  the  efforts  to  be  made  for  humanity  in  general. 
Through  its  ethical  and  philanthropic  side,  Christianity  makes  the 
strongest  appeal  to  our  women,  an  appeal  which  meets  a  wonder- 
ful response  in  the  hearts  of  sensitive  natures,  made  singularly 
receptive  by  the  discipline  of  the  past." — Miss  Ume  Tsuda,  " Int. 
Rev.  of  Missions,"  April,  1913,  p.  295  et  seq. 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     135 

with  the  degree  of  M.  A.  ?  Mrs.  Nirmala  Shome, 
a  Christian."  4 

A  word  or  two  may  well  be  added  about  a  few 
of  the  Indian  Christian  women,  to  make  clearer  the 
significance  of  their  work.  The  first  Mrs.  Satthi- 
anadhan  was  the  daughter  of  an  early  Brahman 
convert  to  Christianity.  When  the  Madras  Medical 
School  opened  its  doors  to  women,  she  left  her  home 
in  the  Bombay  Presidency  to  take  up  this  work  as 
the  pioneer  Indian  woman  in  the  study  of  medicine. 
In  spite  of  the  difficulty  of  facing  the  prejudices  of 
Indian  society,  she  entered  the  school  and  was 
^enthusiastically  welcomed  by  the  men  students.  On 
account  of  her  health,  she  had  to  stop  her  course 
before  graduation.  She  married  and  produced  well- 
known  writings  in  which  she  gave  brilliant  de- 
scriptions of  the  life  of  Indian  women.  She  was 
also  prominent  in  philanthropic  work. 

The  hymn,  "  In  the  secret  of  His  presence  how  my 
soul  delights  to  hide,"  is  the  production  of  an 
Indian  Christian,  Miss  Goreh. 

The  Sorabji  family  is  one  of  the  most  famous  of 
the  Christian  fam  lies  in  India.  The  father  was 
one  of  the  few  Christian  Parsees.  A  useful  minister 
of  the  Gospel,  he  is  best  known  as  the  father  of  his 
brilliant  daughters.  One  of  these  married  an 
Englishman  and  used  to  delight  Queen  Yictoria  by 
her  rendering  of  Persian  songs.  Another  was  the 
only  woman  of  the  Orient  in  the  Parliament  of  Ee- 
ligions.     Another  became  a  distinguished  surgeon  ; 

tennis,  J.  S.,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  II,  p.  188. 


136    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

a  fourth  became  an  artist  who  exhibited  at  Paris 
and  London ;  while  the  most  famous  of  all,  Miss 
Cornelia,  is  a  prominent  legal  light.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-one,  she  had  graduated  from  college  and 
was  lecturing  to  a  class  of  men  at  the  Gujarat 
College,  Ahmedabad,  on  English  literature  and 
language,  and  later  was  Acting  Professor  of  English. 
Her  success  in  teaching  men  marked  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  women  in  India.  She  graduated  in 
law  at  Oxford  and  was  admitted  as  a  barrister. 

The  greatest  modern  Indian  woman  is  Pundita 
Ramabai,  whose  noble  work  for  the  widows  of  India 
and  now,  also,  for  thousands  of  orphans,  is  too  well 
known  to  require  description.  At  one  time  neutral 
in  her  work  as  regards  Christianity,  she  is  now 
aggressively  Christian  and  is  respected  by  all  classes. 

A  Christian  community  that  can  produce  such 
women  as  these  is  to  be  reckoned  with  in  the  days 
to  come. 

The  large  majority  of  the  Japanese  women  in 
their  prime  who  are  prominent  in  Christian  work 
were  educated  in  Christian  schools.  Even  some 
women,  not  themselves  Christians,  who  are  promi- 
nent in  public  work,  were  thus  trained.  The 
mission  schools  were  the  pioneers  in  the  education 
of  the  girls  of  Japan,  but  they  no  longer  take  the 
lead.  This  is  not  due  to  any  decrease  in  their 
efficiency,  but  to  the  remarkable  improvements  in 
the  government  schools.  The  result  is  that  the 
next  generation  of  leading  women  will  not  come 
from   Christian  schools  in  any  such  proportions. 


Progress  in  the  Ideals  of  Family  Life     137 

What  the  effect  of  this  diminution  in  the  number  of 
Christian-trained  women  will  be  no  one  can  forecast. 
The  leading  woman  educator  of  Japan,  Miss  Tsuda, 
quoted  above,  who  has  the  highest  grade  Japanese 
school  for  girls  in  the  country,  a  school  with  gov- 
ernment recognitiou,  is  herself  an  earnest  Christian. 
Any  one  who  has  visited  the  Orient  and  seen  the 
difference  between  the  Christian  and  the  non-Chris- 
tian homes,  who  has  contrasted  the  expression  upon 
the  faces  of  the  women  whom  Christ  has  made  free 
with  that  upon  the  faces  of  those  who  are  still 
without  Him,  will  need  no  further  argument  to  prove 
the  success  of  the  work  of  Christian  missions.  Had 
there  been  no  other  effect,  the  undertaking  would 
have  paid  for  itself.  As  it  is,  the  women,  who  hold 
the  key  to  the  Orient,  are  being  reached,  and  if  the 
Church  at  home  will  do  its  part,  more  than  half  the 
women  of  the  world  will  before  many  generations 
cease  to  be  a  drag  upon  social  progress  and  will 
become  a  force  speeding  on  the  emancipation  of 
their  sisters  and  the  uplift  of  the  great  nations  on 
the  continents  of  Africa  and  Asia. 


IV 
PEOGEESS  IN  ETHICAL  IDEALS 

AFAIE-MIISTDED  man  approaches  the  sub- 
ject of  ethical  progress  in  mission  lands 
with  hesitation,  because  he  realizes  how 
great  is  the  danger  of  misrepresentation.  It  is  so 
easy  for  the  outsider  to  misunderstand  what  he 
sees.  It  is  so  easy  for  the  best  observer  to  look  at 
but  one  side  of  the  picture.  The  general  method 
in  the  past  has  too  often  been  to  describe  the  darkei 
phases  of  life  in  non-Christian  lands,  their  crue\ 
customs,  or  their  lack  of  such  virtues  as  honesty 
and  purity,  and  then  to  contrast  with  these  the 
ideals  of  Christian  nations.  This  is  unfair  for  two 
reasons :  it  overlooks  the  brighter  and  better  side  of 
non-Christian  life  ;  and  at  the  same  time  it  forgets 
that  in  our  own  civilization  the  Christian  ideals  are 
but  imperfectly  realized.  On  the  other  hand,  one 
who  is  prejudiced  against  missionary  work  dwells 
upon  all  the  attractiveness,  to  him,  of  the  Orient, 
the  beautiful  thoughts  that  here  and  there  find  ex- 
pression in  their  sacred  writings,  and  the  charm  of 
life  in  the  East.  He  contrasts  with  these  the  cru- 
dity and  cruelty  of  Western  life,  and  then  concludes 
that  the  West  has  nothing  to  teach  the  East. 

Similarly,  the  Oriental  traveller  or  student  comes 
138 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  139 

to  this  country,  sees  the  industrial  and  moral  con- 
ditions in  our  cities,  the  openness  of  vice,  the  cor- 
rupting influence  of  some  of  our  amusements,  and 
he  returns  convinced  that  their  own  customs  and 
institutions  need  only  minor  modifications. 

What  shall  one  say  as  between  these  two  dia- 
metrically opposed  conclusions  ?  Neither  is  just. 
It  is  not  fair  to  compare  the  best  of  one  country  or 
civilization  with  the  worst  of  another  country  or 
civilization.  For  instance,  I  had  a  friend  in  India 
whose  acquaintance  with  Americans  had  been 
confined  to  missionaries  and  to  such  travellers  as 
Dr.  Charles  Cuthbert  Hall  and  President  Henry 
Churchill  King,  while  the  Englishmen  he  had 
known  had  been  army  officers  and  civilians. 
Needless  to  say,  the  erroneous  conclusion  he  drew 
was  that  Americans  are  far  superior  in  every  re- 
spect to  the  British.  The  best  of  the  East  should 
be  compared  with  the  best  of  the  West,  the  worst 
of  the  Orient  with  the  worst  of  the  Occident,  or, 
better  still,  the  general  level  of  the  standards  in 
the  two  parts  of  the  world  should  be  set  over 
against  one  another. 

At  the  same  time,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that,  while  the  vice  in  our  cities  should  make  Chris- 
tians ashamed  of  their  failure  to  eradicate  this  evil, 
yet  it  exists  in  spite  of  our  Christian  public  senti- 
ment, which  is  constantly  striving  to  suppress  it. 
On  the  other  hand,  this  same  evil  in  India  is  sanc- 
tified by  religion,  and  its  worst  phases  are  con- 
nected with  the  religious  life  and  worship  of  certain 


140    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

sections  of  the  people.  The  Western  nations  are 
constantly  struggling  to  suppress  thievery,  but  graft 
has  been  taken  for  granted  in  China.  Stealing  is 
a  recognized  profession  in  India,  and  it  is  only  under 
the  spur  of  Christian  and  Western  influence  that 
any  very  earnest  attempt  has  been  made  to  eradi- 
cate it.  Hence,  while  scrupulous  fairness  must  be 
shown  towards  these  peoples,  and  while  it  must  be 
admitted  with  shame  that  Christianity  has  not  yet 
succeeded  in  raising  the  ethical  ideals  of  Europe 
and  America  to  a  truly  Christian  level,  yet  it  is 
still  true,  as  this  chapter  and  the  last  should  show, 
that  the  nations  which  have  gone  the  farthest  in 
adopting  the  principles  of  Jesus  are,  ethically 
speaking,  immeasurably  ahead  of  those  that  have 
not  followed  Him. 

The  ethical  precepts  and  ideals  of  a  nation  like 
China  are  high.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  best 
portions  of  the  literature  of  a  country  like  India, 
although  much  of  the  literature  of  India  would 
never  be  tolerated  in  an  English  translation.  The 
real  difference  in  ethical  level  is  seen  in  the  social 
and  individual  standards  as  embodied  in  actual  life. 
One  glaring  instance  is  the  position  accorded  to 
woman,  as  set  forth  in  the  last  chapter. 

The  root  of  the  difficulty  is  the  fact  that  under 
the  non-Christian  religions, — and  even,  it  must  be 
confessed,  under  a  dead  and  formal  Christianity, — 
there  is  a  divorce  between  religion  and  ethics.  This 
does  not  mean  that  these  religions  do  not  enforce  a 
certain  moral  code.     They  do.     For  example,  the 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  141 

belief,  prevalent  in  China,  that  the  spirit  of  a  mur- 
dered man  returns  to  plague  the  murderer,  deters 
many  a  man  from  making  way  with  one  whom  he 
dislikes.  In  such  matters  as  sex  relations,  certain 
rules  may  be  enforced  with  great  rigour,  even 
though  the  standard,  as  Westerners  regard  it,  may 
be  very  low.  At  the  same  time,  these  religions  are 
relatively  powerless  to  transform  lives,  and  in  many 
cases  there  is  an  absolute  divorce  between  ethics 
and  religion,  the  most  religious  persons  being  the 
most  corrupt.  Even  under  Roman  Catholic  Chris- 
tianity, where  it  has  lost  its  vitality,  as  it  so  largely 
has  in  the  countries  of  South  America,  this  is  true, 
and  the  priests  have  at  times  been  a  stench  in  the 
nostrils  of  all  decent  people.  The  open  violation 
by  many  Buddhist  priests  in  Japan  of  their  vow  of 
chastity,  even  their  frequenting  of  houses  of  prosti- 
tution, has  been  notorious.  A  famous  Buddhist 
priest  whom  I  met  personally  in  Burma  was  not 
ashamed  to  confess  himself  guilty  of  such  deeds. 

Similar  oifenses  occur  in  India.  Some  of  the 
holy  men  are  sincerely  desirous  of  attaining  the 
higher  life,  and  live  pure,  though  selfish,  lives.  But 
others  are  unspeakably  corrupt  and  have  reached 
the  point  where  it  is  believed  that  they  are  guilty 
of  no  sin  when  they  violate  every  rule  of  purity  or 
decency.  What  else  could  be  expected  in  a  coun- 
try where  the  amours  of  the  gods  are  portrayed  in 
sculpture,  painting,  and  story,  and  are  familiar  to 
the  very  children  in  the  street  ?  Prostitution  is  the 
handmaid  of  religion  in  India. 


142    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

To  be  sure,  one  finds  in  both  India  and  Japan 
the  doctrine  of  salvation  by  faith,  but  it  is  radically 
different  from  the  Christian  belief  bearing  the  same 
name.  Not  only  is  faith  regarded  as  a  meritorious 
work,  but,  according  to  some  schools,  it  makes  no 
difference  what  content  the  faith  has.  Believe  in 
any  god  or  in  any  formula,  and  that  faith  will  save 
you,  no  matter  what  your  life  may  be.  Some  of 
the  Japanese  have  been  driven  to  take  refuge  in 
faith  as  the  means  of  salvation  by  their  belief  that 
their  sins  are  ineradicable,  and  in  the  hope  that 
they  may  thus  attain  future  happiness  without  hav- 
ing to  rid  themselves  of  their  sinful  practices. 

It  would  be  unfair  to  say  that  Islam  teaches  no 
ethical  standards,  but  it  is  not  unfair  to  claim  that 
it  not  only  tolerates  but  caters  to  ethical  standards 
for  which  no  enlightened  religion  can  stand. 

The  distinctive  glory  of  Christianity  is  that  it 
contains  a  dynamic  which  can  transform  the  man 
who  loves  sin  into  the  man  who  loathes  sin,  and 
still  more  into  the  man  who  has  broken  with  sin 
and  is  living  a  new  life.  It  also  proclaims  and 
maintains  that  any  religion  is  unworthy  of  the 
name,  unless  it  manifests  itself  in  a  changed  life, 
which  is  constantly  rising  ethically. 

It  is  sometimes  claimed  by  the  critics  of  missions 
that  the  acceptance  of  Christianity  means  an  ethical 
deterioration  and  that  the  only  natives  one  can 
trust  are  the  raw  heathen.  This  criticism  is  espe- 
cially frequent  in  Africa.  There  are  reasons,  which 
might    be    given,  that  would  explain  why   this 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  143 

criticism  may  at  times  seem  to  have  some  justifica- 
tion. They  do  not,  however,  disprove  the  claim 
that  the  members  of  the  Christian  community,  as  a 
rule,  have  higher  ethical  standards  than  the  same 
class  of  people  among  the  non-Christians,  and  that 
usually  this  standard  is  the  highest  that  can  be 
found  anywhere  in  the  country.  This  is  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  these  Christians  have  often  come  from 
the  lower  ranks  of  society,  whose  standards  may  be 
lower  than  those  of  the  higher  classes. 

There  is  everywhere  evidence  of  the  ethical 
progress  that  has  been  made  under  the  influence 
of  Christianity,  a  progress  that  is  now  extending 
far  beyond  the  Christian  community  and  is  produc- 
ing a  real  ethical  revival  in  the  countries  of  Asia. 

Intemperance  has  been  a  serious  vice  among  the 
peoples  of  Africa  and  the  South  Seas.  Most  of  the 
primitive  races  have  their  own  intoxicating  liquors 
for  use  at  social  gatherings,  but  the  effect  of  these, 
bad  as  it  is,  does  not  compare  for  a  moment  with 
the  demoralization  produced  among  such  races  by 
the  strongest  distilled  liquors.  These  were  practi- 
cally forced  by  Western  traders  upon  these  people. 

Against  this  vice  the  native  Christian  rulers  and 
the  Christian  communities  have  taken  a  decided 
stand.  Khama,  the  great  chief  of  Bechuanaland, 
South  Africa,  used  all  his  influence  to  exclude  im- 
ported liquors  from  his  territory.  In  an  address 
delivered  in  London,  he  declared :  "  It  were  better 
for  me  that  I  should  lose  my  country  than  that  it 


144    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

should  be  flooded  with  drink.  ...  I  dread  the 
white  man's  drink  more  than  all  the  assegais  of  the 
Matabele,  which  kill  men's  bodies,  and  it  is  quickly 
over ;  but  drink  puts  devils  into  men  and  destroys 
both  bodies  and  souls  forever.  ...  I  pray  your 
Honour  never  to  ask  me  to  open  even  a  little  door 
to  drink."  *  The  result  is  that,  except  at  the  rail- 
way stations,  no  such  liquors  can  be  obtained.  He 
attempted  with  equal  earnestness  to  stop  the  mak- 
ing and  drinking  of  the  native  beer.  His  reasons 
were  that  it  debauched  the  people,  led  them  to 
waste  their  time,  and  kept  the  children  out  of 
school.  The  intervention  of  British  officials,  which 
was  probably  due  to  some  misunderstanding,  forced 
him  to  stop  these  efforts  or  run  the  risk  of  the  with- 
drawal from  under  his  dominion  of  all  the  beer- 
loving  people.  The  very  Sunday  I  spent  at  his 
capital,  Serowe,  he  initiated  a  new  attempt  to  curb 
'this  evil,  with  what  success  I  have  never  learned. 

In  New  Zealand  a  young  Maori  chief  was  a  leader 
in  urging  that  "  no  intoxicating  liquor  be  sold  or 
given  to  any  man  of  the  native  race,  and  that  no 
license  be  renewed  or  fresh  license  be  granted 
within  a  mile  of  Maori-land."  Thirty  chiefs  and 
sixty  representative  men  supported  this  petition. 
In  the  Zulu  Mission  in  South  Africa  every  church- 
member  is  expected  to  take  the  pledge  of  total 
abstinence.  The  Christians  around  Lake  Nyasa 
agreed  together,  "we  will  neither  make  beer  nor 
drink  it."  In  twelve  villages  in  Formosa,  where 
1  Vid.  Dennis,  J.  S.,  op.  tit.,  Vol.  II,  p.  107. 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  145 

churches  had  been  planted,  the  change  was  so  great 
that  the  heathen  Chinese  declared, "  The  aborigines 
are  now  men  and  women."  In  Assam  and  Burma 
nearly  every  Christian  is  a  total  abstainer.  In  a 
country  like  Japan,  also,  Christians  have  been 
leaders  in  fighting  intemperance,  although  now  the 
work  is  by  no  means  confined  to  them.  There  are 
about  seventy-five  temperance  societies  in  Japan, 
including  Korea,  and  nearly  twenty  more  among 
Japanese  elsewhere.  The  active  membership  is 
about  eight  thousand.  The  Japanese  branch  of  the 
World's  Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union  has 
some  three  thousand  members  in  more  than  seventy 
branches.1 

Again,  take  such  a  matter  as  human  sacrifice. 
For  the  purpose  of  averting  calamity  or  securing 
good  harvests,  victory  in  war,  or  success  in  any 
new  undertaking,  it  has  been  customary  among 
some  peoples  to  offer  human  sacrifices.  Closely 
connected  with  the  animistic  beliefs  so  prevalent 
among  all  primitive  peoples  is  the  custom  of  killing 
human  beings  to  serve  as  attendants  to  deceased 
persons  of  dignity  and  station.  This  degenerated 
until,  among  some  savage  tribes,  human  sacrifices 
became  a  part  of  their  ceremonial  etiquette. 

The  Yedas  and  other  sources  reveal  the  fact  that 
in  the  early  days  of  India  such  sacrifices  were  com- 
mon. The  particular  kind  of  human  being  re- 
quired was  specified  in  the  case  of  no  less  than  one 
1  "Japan  Year  Book,  1912,"  p.  232. 


146    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

hundred  and  seventy-nine  different  gods.  In 
Assam,  not  long  since,  children  were  offered  as  a 
sacrifice  for  the  forgiveness  of  sins.  The  Shans  in 
upper  Burma  believe  that  human  sacrifices  bring 
good  harvests  and  that  certain  spirits  can  be  ap- 
peased in  no  other  way.  The  guardian  spirit  of 
one  of  their  ferries  required  such  a  sacrifice  an- 
nually, and  a  Chinaman  was  preferred.  Yery  con- 
veniently, the  spirit  used  to  capsize  the  boat  at  the 
proper  moment  and  thus  secure  his  victim.  Before 
1837,  in  a  single  city  in  east  central  India,  one 
hundred  and  fifty  human  sacrifices  were  annually 
offered.  In  1892  the  head  man  of  a  village  came 
to  the  missionary,  requesting  him  to  intercede  with 
the  government  for  permission  to  offer  a  living 
child  in  sacrifice  for  the  purpose  of  removing  dis- 
ease from  their  homes  and  bringing  rain. 

During  thirty  years,  a  king  in  the  Society  Islands 
sacrificed  as  many  as  two  thousand  such  victims. 
Most  public  occasions,  even  the  launching  of  a  new 
canoe,  required  such  offerings. 

Africa  is  the  scene  of  some  of  the  worst  of  such 
atrocities.  The  resting  place  of  the  body  of  a  chief 
was  often  a  bed  of  living  women.  Forty  victims 
were  killed  within  two  days  after  the  death  of  one 
king.  When  King  M'tesa  of  Uganda  rebuilt  his 
father's  tomb,  the  throats  of  two  thousand  victims 
were  cut  at  the  grave.  A  chief  in  the  Congo 
region,  whose  hand  was  diseased,  killed  thirty  of 
his  subjects  because  he  thought  they  were  eating 
it.     The  brother  of  another  king  lay  unburied  for 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  147 

two  months  because  they  could  not  capture  and 
kill  enough  people  to  satisfy  their  superstitions. 
One  hundred  had  been  killed,  and  another  hundred 
were  required.  One  beast  in  Africa  killed  four 
hundred  virgins  and  mixed  their  blood  with  the 
mortar  in  order  to  get  the  right  shade  for  the 
painted  stucco  of  his  palace.  A  whole  quarter  of 
his  city  was  assigned  to  his  executioners. 

Against  such  barbarous  customs  the  Christian 
forces  have  waged  relentless  warfare.  The  British 
troops  destroyed  the  shambles  of  the  last  named 
king  and  took  him  prisoner.  The  British  Govern- 
ment has  entirely  suppressed  such  sacrifices  in 
India,  unless  there  is  an  occasional  secret  offering 
in  spite  of  the  vigilance  of  the  police.  The  native 
leaders  of  Uganda  are  dominated  by  Christian 
principles,  and  under  their  influence  human  sacri- 
fices are  a  thing  of  the  past  in  that  country.  In 
Old  Calabar,  the  missionaries  fought  the  custom 
with  all  their  might  and  finally  won  the  day.  In 
1850  two  chiefs  had  died  and  several  wives  and 
slaves  had  been  killed.  Then  a  missionary  ap- 
pealed to  the  king,  and  he  and  his  chiefs  were  in- 
duced to  consent  to  the  passage  of  a  law  abolishing 
all  executions  except  for  crime.  The  people  were 
rallied  to  the  support  of  this  law  and  organized 
themselves  into  a  "  Society  for  the  Suppression  of 
Human  Sacrifices  in  Old  Calabar."  The  law  was 
passed  and  its  enforcement  gradually  improved 
until  human  sacrifices  became  unknown. 

The  great  French  missionary  Coil  lard  induoed 


148    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

the  notorious  King  Lewanika  in  Zambesia  to  abol- 
ish, the  rite  of  human  sacrifice.  In  the  Yoruba 
Mission  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  the 
progress  was  gradual.  First,  the  public  parading 
of  the  victims  was  discontinued.  Then  public 
opinion  came  to  regard  it  as  wanton  cruelty  to 
sacrifice  men  and  women,  since  no  beneficial  re- 
sults were  secured.  This  drove  the  practice  under 
cover,  until  it  finally  ceased,  unless  in  rare  in- 
stances. Thus,  wherever  Christian  influence  is 
dominant,  human  sacrifices  have  disappeared. 

Cannibalism  is  another  evil  that  has  prevailed 
widely  among  primitive  peoples.  The  chief  basis 
of  this  custom  was  the  animistic  belief  that  by 
eating  the  bodies  of  slain  enemies  the  victors  ac- 
quired the  strength  and  courage  of  the  victims. 
Dr.  Warneck  instances  cases  where  triumphant 
warriors,  as  a  matter  of  principle,  devoured  human 
bodies,  even  though  they  so  disliked  the  taste  that 
it  caused  nausea.  Again,  the  lack  of  animal  flesh 
for  food  may  have  helped  to  establish  this  custom, 
which,  in  not  a  few  cases,  degenerated  until  it  be- 
came a  matter  of  mere  beastly  enjoyment. 

In  Fiji  the  people  ate  human  flesh  from  the  love 
of  it,  to  express  vengeance,  and  to  excite  terror. 
Human  flesh  was  regarded  as  an  essential  part  of 
any  feast  for  the  entertainment  of  visiting  chiefs. 
One  chief  used  to  return  from  his  tributary  islands 
with  the  bodies  of  infants  hanging  from  the  yard- 
arms  of  his  boat.    Another  registered  the  number 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  149 

of  bodies  he  had  eaten  by  setting  up  a  stone  on  end 
for  each  body.  A  missionary  counted  eight  hun- 
dred and  seventy-two  such  stones. 

It  is  to  the  credit  of  North  and  South  Africa 
that  there  has  been  little  cannibalism  in  those  parts. 
Not  so  in  the  Congo  region.  One  fortified  city 
there  with  four  gates  had  the  approach  to  each 
paved  with  human  skulls,  most  of  them  the  relics 
of  cannibalism.  In  one  pavement  there  were  more 
than  two  thousand  skulls.  In  this  country,  that  of 
the  Batelas,  every  person  who  became  old  was 
killed  and  eaten  by  his  children.  A  missionary  in 
Old  Calabar  reported  one  region  where  slaves  were 
sold  for  food  in  a  regular  cannibal  market. 

Cannibalism  has  rapidly  disappeared  before 
Christian  influence.  Earatonga,  one  of  the  Hervey 
Islands,  was  transformed  by  two  native  teachers 
within  the  two  years  1823-1825.  Fiji  has  been 
Christianized.  Lifu,  one  of  the  Loyalty  Islands, 
was  converted  by  a  native  evangelist  from  Eara- 
tonga. He  was  condemned  to  be  eaten  by  his  hear- 
ers, but  within  ten  years  cannibalism  had  been 
stamped  out.  The  Maoris  of  New  Zealand  have 
been  transformed  and,  within  the  range  of  Chris- 
tian influence,  no  cannibal  Maori  can  be  found,  if 
there  are  any  survivors  anywhere.  Yet  these  peo- 
ple in  the  old  days  not  only  feasted  on  slain  enemies 
but  specially  fattened  slaves  for  such  feasts.  In 
Africa  the  progress  has  been  in  the  same  direction. 
For  example,  Bishop  Crowther  reported  a  tribal 
war  in  which  one  hundred  and  fifty  prisoners  were 


150    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

taken.  The  heathen  chiefs  received  one  hundred 
and  thirty-nine,  and  these  were  all  eaten.  The  re- 
mainder were  assigned  to  Christian  chiefs,  and  their 
lives  were  spared. 

Infanticide  is  another  heathen  custom  that  has 
taken  its  toll  of  human  life.  This  is  true  of  Africa. 
In  one  town  in  East  Africa  the  missionaries  knew 
of  at  least  forty  children  who  had  been  killed  at  or 
shortly  after  birth  within  a  single  year,  1895.  In 
extenuation  of  some  of  these  murders  in  Africa  may 
be  cited  the  belief  that,  unless  a  child  about  whom 
there  is  some  untoward  circumstance  is  killed,  the 
father  will  die.  Some  people  regard  the  cutting 
of  a  lower  tooth  first  as  such  an  evil  omen,  while 
other  tribes  regard  the  cutting  of  an  upper  tooth  as 
rightly  punishable  with  death.  On  the  West  Coast 
the  mother  of  twins  is  disgraced  for  life.  In  other 
regions  their  birth  is  a  cause  of  great  rejoicing. 

In  Old  Calabar  the  king  of  Creek  Town  was  in- 
duced in  1851  by  missionary  influence  to  pass  a  law 
pronouncing  the  murder  of  twins  or  their  mother  a 
capital  crime.  It  was  added,  however,  that  since 
such  mothers  and  children  could  not  be  permitted 
to  live  in  the  town,  a  place  outside  should  be  found 
for  them.  By  1878  these  women  were  given  full 
liberty  of  visiting  the  town  and  trading  there  with- 
out molestation.  In  the  same  region,  twins  were 
born  to  a  Christian  couple  in  1894,  and,  thanks  to 
the  influence  of  Christianity,  were  regarded  as  a 
source  of  great  delight.     Infanticide  used  to  be  prev- 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  151 

alent  in  Madagascar;  the  Christian  communities 
have  blotted  it  out  from  their  midst.  In  the  Fiji 
Islands  infanticide  was  added  to  cannibalism. 
Mothers  themselves  often  strangled  their  children, 
especially  the  girls,  and  the  early  missionaries  testi- 
fied that  no  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  children 
were  killed.  Now  these  islands  are  one  of  the  most 
law-abiding  communities  in  the  world.  On  the 
island  of  Mbau  the  stone,  now  hollowed  out  and 
used  as  a  baptismal  font,  was  formerly  the  place  of 
slaughter  for  those  who  were  to  be  eaten.  Except 
in  the  Samoan  Islands,  infanticide  was  practiced 
throughout  the  small  Pacific  islands.  Now,  among 
all  the  Christians  in  these  islands,  the  old  custom  is 
abhorred,  and  even  where  Christianity  has  only  a 
partial  hold,  it  has  been  much  reduced. 

Cannibalism  and  human  sacrifices  are  marks 
chiefly  of  savage  society,  but  female  infanticide  has 
been  common  in  many  countries  where  in  other  re- 
spects there  existed  a  high  degree  of  civilization. 
The  facts  set  forth  in  the  third  chapter  go  far  to 
explain  some  of  the  reasons  for  this  custom. 
Mothers  who  had  come  to  loathe  their  own  lot  were 
unwilling  that  their  daughters  should  suffer  the 
same  disabilities,  while  the  great  expense  of  bring- 
ing up  and  marrying  a  daughter  led  fathers  to  de- 
sire to  escape  this  financial  burden.  A  pagan 
woman  in  China  expressed  it  thus :  "  A  daughter  is 
a  troublesome  and  expensive  thing  anyway.  Not 
only  has  she  to  be  fed,  but  there  is  all  the  trouble 
of  binding  her  feet,  and  of  getting  her  betrothed, 


152    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

and  of  making  up  her  wedding  garments  ;  and  even 
after  she  is  married  off  she  must  have  presents  made 
to  her  when  she  has  children.  Really,  it  is  no  won- 
der that  so  many  baby  girls  are  slain  at  their 
birth ! " ■  On  the  other  hand,  the  necessity  of 
having  a  son  to  perform  the  sacrifices  and  rites  after 
the  death  of  the  father,  confined  the  killing  of  in- 
fants to  those  of  one  sex.  These  statements  apply 
to  such  countries  as  China  and  India. 

"Whatever  the  reasons,  the  facts  are  indisputable. 
One  of  the  early  missionaries  in  Foochow  learned 
from  the  statements  of  natives  that  fifty  and  more 
years  ago  about  sixty  or  seventy  per  cent,  of  the 
female  infants  in  that  region  were  drowned  at 
birth,  or  destroyed  in  some  other  way.  Special  in- 
quiries for  the  province  of  Fukien  gave  an  average 
of  forty  per  cent,  for  the  girls  that  were  murdered. 
For  the  vicinity  of  Amoy,  it  varied  from  ten  to 
eighty  per  cent.  Even  if  we  make  a  large  allow- 
ance for  exaggeration,  the  result  is  sufficiently  ap- 
palling. A  Christian  woman  in  the  adjoining 
province  of  Cheh-kiang  confessed  that  before  she 
became  a  Christian  she  had  had  five  daughters,  all 
of  whom  she  had  drowned,  because  she  could  not 
afford  to  bring  them  up.  It  is  suggestive  that  in 
this  region  foot-binding  is  carried  to  an  extreme, 
beyond  that  in  most  of  the  other  provinces.  This 
may  account  in  part  for  the  unusually  high  per- 
centage. Parents  who  did  not  kill  their  children 
might  leave   them   in  an  exposed  place,  or  they 

1  Dennis,  J.  S.,  op.  cit,  Vol.  I,  p.  129. 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  153 

might  be  cast  into  the  baby  tower.  Such  towers 
still  exist,  though  they  are  supposedly  used  only  for 
the  disposition  of  the  bodies  of  dead  babies.  I  have 
myself  visited  one  in  the  vicinity  of  Foochow,  and 
a  friend  saw  it  when  it  was  so  full  that  little  bun- 
dles were  lying  around  outside. 

Christians  have  taken  the  lead  in  checking 
infanticide  in  China.  The  old  pond  in  the  centre 
of  the  city  of  Amoy,  into  which  babies  were 
thrown,  gradually  ceased  to  receive  these  deposits, 
and  the  pond  long  ago  dried  up.  Some  thirty-five 
years  ago  the  protests  of  missionaries  in  Foochow 
led  to  the  issuing  of  a  proclamation  that  "the 
drowning  of  female  infants  is  forever  forbidden." 
Later  edicts  threatened  severe  punishment  for 
those  guilty  of  such  murders.  The  result  was  a 
great  diminution  in  this  practice.  At  a  later  date, 
the  imperial  government  issued  edicts  forbidding 
such  murders,  and  opened  foundling  hospitals  for 
girl  babies.  It  must  be  said,  however,  that  until 
recently  some  of  these  institutions  were  anything 
but  well  managed.  Little  attention  was  paid  to 
cleanliness  and  sanitation.  The  children  were  at 
least  horribly  neglected  and  even  worse  charges 
have  been  brought  against  these  hospitals.  Others 
were  fairly  well  conducted  and  the  girls  were 
trained  for  marriage.  Now,  however,  a  new  day 
has  dawned  and,  under  Christian  leadership,  im- 
provements are  being  made.  There  was  six  years 
ago  an  admirable  institution  in  Tientsin  in  charge 
of    a    Christian  Chinese    woman    doctor.    Mean- 


154    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

time,  this  lack  of  care  by  the  Chinese  gave  the 
missionaries  an  opportunity  to  supply  the  de- 
ficiency. 

Still  more  important,  perhaps,  has  been  a  change 
in  public  sentiment.  The  example  of  the  Chris- 
tians, among  whom  the  practice  of  infanticide,  of 
course,  entirely  disappeared,  affected  the  out- 
siders. Some  twenty  years  ago,  a  missionary  in 
Hankow  was  surprised  to  find  several  baby  girls  in 
Chinese  homes,  and  was  told,  "We  see  that  the 
Christians  are  keeping  their  girls,  and  we  think 
perhaps  we  might  be  able  to  do  the  same."  Every- 
where the  influence  of  Christian  missions  has  tended 
to  heighten  the  regard  paid  to  women,  to  make 
more  sacred  the  life  of  girls,  and  thus  to  lessen  the 
evil  of  infanticide. 

In  some  parts  of  India,  chiefly  in  the  north, 
infanticide  used  to  be  most  shockingly  common. 
The  Rajputs  and  other  tribes  were  sinners  above 
all  others.  In  1843,  in  one  clan,  the  Chauhans, 
there  was  not  a  single  female  child.  In  1836,  a 
Eajput  chief  estimated  that  the  annual  slaughter  of 
infant  girls  in  the  two  provinces  of  Malwa  and 
Rajputana  amounted  to  not  less  than  20,000,  and 
this  in  spite  of  an  order  of  the  British  Government, 
issued  in  1802,  declaring  infanticide  murder,  punish- 
able with  death.  An  army  officer,  writing  in  1818, 
stated  that,  among  the  children  of  eight  thousand 
Rajputs,  probably  not  more  than  thirty  were  girls. 
Ten  years  after  the  government  had  begun  to  sup- 
press the  custom  in  Gujarat,  only  sixty-three  girls 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  155 

were  known  to  have  been  saved.  One  Deputy- 
Inspector  of  Police  was  asked  if  he  had  any  chil- 
dren. He  replied,  "  Yes,  I  had  the  misfortune  to 
have  two  daughters,  but  I  have  dispatched  both  of 
them.  May  God  now  bless  me  with  a  son  !  "  In 
one  district,  some  years  since,  several  hundred  chil- 
dren were  returned  as  having  been  carried  off  by 
wolves.  Strangely  enough,  all  of  these  were 
girls !  ■  In  many  sections,  there  has  been  no  con- 
science in  the  matter  ;  the  custom  has  been  a  matter 
of  course.  When  Kathiawar,  the  peninsula  west  of 
Bombay,  came  under  British  rule,  the  Jains  ex- 
pressly stipulated  that  no  cattle  should  be  killed 
for  the  use  of  British  troops,  but  they  had  been 
practicing  female  infanticide  for  ages.  The  result 
of  all  this  is  seen  in  the  proportion  of  the  sexes. 
Thus,  several  years  ago,  in  upper  Burma,  where 
woman  is  highly  honoured,  there  were  102.79 
girls  to  every  100  boys,  practically  the  same  as 
in  Europe.  Contrast  with  this  the  Indian  aver- 
ages :  for  Quetta,  in  British  Baluchistan,  69.78 ; 
Sindh,  83.17  ;  Kajputana,  87.48 ;  all  India,  92.00.2 
In  addition  to  this  cold-blooded  infanticide,  there 
used  to  be  another,  a  sacrificial  infanticide,  to  ap- 
pease the  deities.  Thousands  of  children  were  cast 
into  the  Ganges  to  be  devoured  by  crocodiles  and 
sharks,  while  another  method  was  discovered  by 
William  Carey,  in  1794.  A  mother,  who  was  too 
poor  to  go  on  a  pilgrimage  to  a  sacred  river  spot, 

1  Fuller,  Mrs.  M.  B.,  op.  cti.,  p.  155  et  seq. 

2  Dennis,  J.  S.,  op.  cit.f  Vol.  I,  p.  133. 


156    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

left  her  child  in  a  basket,  hanging  from  a  tree, 
to  be  devoured  by  white  ants. 

Against  all  jsuch  practices  the  Christian  forces, 
backed  by  the  British  Government,  has  waged  de- 
termined warfare.  The  Christians  themselves  re- 
gard the  custom  with  horror.  The  efforts  of  the 
government  are  hampered  by  the  secrecy  and 
inviolability  of  the  Indian  zenana,  which  make 
very  difficult  the  detection  and  punishment  of  the 
murderers  of  children  at  home,  and  also  by  the  fact 
that  the  father  has  from  time  immemorial  possessed 
the  power  of  life  and  death  over  his  children. 
Mere  neglect  and  exposure  will  accomplish  the 
purpose,  and  an  overt,  positive  act  is  almost  neces- 
sary for  action.  As  early  as  1802,  infanticide  was 
declared  murder,  and  the  penal  code  of  1860  made 
it  a  crime.  Meantime,  government  had  succeeded 
in  preventing  the  exposure  of  children  at  such 
festival  spots  as  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges,  where 
so  many  children  and  older  people,  too,  had  per- 
ished. This  was  done  soon  after  Carey's  gruesome 
discovery  of  the  baby's  bones  in  the  basket.1 

Even  these  measures  were  not  sufficient,  and  the 
Female  Infanticide  Act  of  1870  required  the  regis- 
tration of  all  births.  It  went  still  further,  and  laid 
down  the  principle  that  the  number  of  girls  born 
must  bear  a  certain  proportion  to  that  of  the  boys  ! 
Thus,  a  tribe  in  which  there  were  eighty  boys  un- 
der twelve  and  only  eight  girls  would  be  at  once 
suspected  and  put  under  strict  surveillance.     This 

1  Vid.  Smith,  G.,  "Life  of  William  Carey,"  p.  281  ct  seq. 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  157 

is  no  imaginary  instance.  In  this  effort  to  prohibit 
female  infanticide,  the  British  Government  has  had 
the  support  of  the  feudatory  states,  which  have 
made  similar  prohibitions.  In  spite  of  these  ef- 
forts, in  1897,  a  census  of  the  Thakur  villages  in 
the  North-West  Provinces  showed  that  eighty-five 
per  cent,  of  the  children  were  boys.  Within  a  re- 
cent period  of  fifteen  years,  12,542  cases  of  infanti- 
cide were  officially  reported,  and  in  1895  it  was  de- 
clared in  the  Indian  Social  Reformer  that  the  cus- 
tom seemed  largely  on  the  increase  in  the  Madras 
Presidency.  All  of  which  goes  to  show  that  a  cus- 
tom that  has  prevailed  for  centuries  is  not  often 
eradicated  within  a  generation. 

Suicide  is  another  evil  of  non-Christian  society 
which  Christianity  has  opposed.  This  practice  is 
associated  with  the  old  ethical  standards  of  the 
samurai  class  in  feudal  Japan,  among  whom  loy- 
alty was  regarded  as  the  preeminent  virtue,  in  com- 
parison with  which  life  itself  was  of  relatively  lit- 
tle account.  Out  of  loyalty  to  a  leader,  as  a  method 
of  testifying  to  loyalty  to  one's  beliefs,  or  even  as  a 
means  of  escaping  the  disgrace  of  failure,  it  was 
customary  to  commit  suicide.  The  samurai,  as  all 
know,  used  their  short  sword  for  committing  Kara- 
Jciri.  This  is  one  of  the  most  painful  of  deaths, 
but  they  were  trained  to  commit  it  without  moving 
a  muscle  of  the  face.  In  these  days  suicide  is  com- 
mitted by  others  than  the  descendants  of  the  sam- 
urai.    Women    commit   it  more  frequently  than 


158    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

men.  Students  especially  are  given  to  ending  life 
thus  when  they  fail  in  their  examinations  ;  and  cer- 
tain beautiful  spots  in  Japan,  which  are  favourites 
with  such  visitors,  have  to  be  guarded  to  prevent 
their  being  used  for  such  a  purpose.  The  recent 
suicide  of  General  Count  Nogi  and  his  wife  is  proof 
that  the  old  standards  of  the  samurai  have  not 
passed  into  oblivion,  as  is  testified  to,  also,  by  the 
acclaim  with  which  this  deed  was  hailed  by  many. 
Suicide  is  not  unknown  in  India,  where  a  native 
journal  declared  that  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  suicides 
are  married  women.  Suicide  has  also  been  com- 
mon in  China.  Here  the  object  has  been  not 
merely  to  escape  from  the  pains  of  this  life,  but  to 
secure  revenge.  The  Chinese  believe  that  one  who 
thus  leaves  this  world  may  return  as  a  spirit  to 
haunt  the  life  of  the  oppresser  or  betrayer.  Many 
of  the  suicides  have  been  women.  Some  of  them 
have  been  driven  to  this  by  the  betrayal  of  their 
virtue.  Others  have  done  it  in  order  to  escape 
cruel  treatment  or  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  being 
married.  Favourite  methods  have  been  by  the  use 
of  opium,  by  drowning,  or  by  eating  matches.  As 
it  is  believed  that  any  mutilation  of  the  person  re- 
ceived during  this  life  must  be  retained  in  any  fu- 
ture existence,  these  methods  are  favoured  because 
they  leave  no  mark.  Christian  missionaries  rescue 
many  suicides  in  China  every  year.  The  pessi- 
mism of  heathenism,  especially  where  Buddhist  and 
Hindu  views  regarding  transmigration  have  had 
influence,  accounts  for  much  of  this,  added  to  which 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  159 

is  the  cruelty  with  which  women  are  often  treated. 
Then,  too,  there  is  the  low  estimate  put  upon  life. 
Suicide  is  too  common  in  the  so-called  Christian 
West  for  us  to  be  too  censorious  upon  this  point. 
At  the  same  time,  the  whole  influence  of  Chris- 
tianity is  against  it,  whether  in  America  or  in 
Japan.  Christianity  teaches  the  sacredness  of  hu- 
man life  and  the  responsibility  of  each  individual 
before  his  Creator,  which  cannot  be  avoided  by 
self-destruction.  Christianity  teaches  that  there  is 
a  future  life.  It  inculcates  a  spirit  of  faith  and  joy. 
It  opposes  the  spirit  of  revenge.  It  does  not  reject 
loyalty,  but  it  teaches  that  this  should  be  loyalty  to 
the  highest  ideals  and  should  be  exhibited  by  a  life 
of  service.  The  result  is  that  Christians  on  the 
mission  field  rarely  if  ever  commit  suicide  unless 
insane.  Moreover,  the  Christian  view  of  suicide  is 
coming  to  prevail  among  non-Christians.  Thus, 
Japan  is  seeking  to  prevent  suicide  and  the  second, 
sober  thought  of  the  nation  disapproved  of  the  act 
of  General  Count  Nogi,  even  though  it  was  strictly 
in  accord  with  the  old  standards,  which  would  have 
been  accepted  by  all  as  proper  two  generations  ago. 

Self-torture  is  another  evil  to  be  mentioned  here. 
This  is  very  common  in  connection  with  religious 
rites,  especially  in  India  and  China.  In  India,  there 
are  bodies  of  ascetics  who  always  remain  standing ; 
others  who  keep  their  hands  uplifted  above  their 
heads  until  they  cannot  be  taken  down  ;  others  who 
hang  head  down  from  the  bough  of  a  tree ;  and 


160    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

others  who  are  at  all  seasons  surrounded  by  five 
fires,  or  who  remain  immersed  in  water,  or  under  a 
jet  of  water  from  sunset  to  sunrise,  etc.  In  con- 
nection with  festivals  in  honour  of  the  god  Shiva, 
hook-swinging  used  to  be  in  great  vogue,  the  hooks 
being  thrust  through  the  muscles  over  the  shoulder 
blades.  Walking  upon  live  charcoal,  rolling  upon 
"  cushions  "  of  thorns,  lying  upon  beds  of  spikes, 
piercing  the  tongue  and  sides  with  heavy  javelins, 
are  other  methods  of  self-torture. 

In  China,  the  mutilation  may  be  from  religious 
motives,  as  in  these  examples  from  India;  or  it 
may  be  due  to  filial  piety  or  even  to  the  hope  of 
gain.  Dutiful  sons  and  daughters  cut  off  pieces  of 
flesh  to  make  soup  for  aged  or  sick  parents.  One 
famous  case,  which  received  the  approbation  of  the 
government,  was  that  of  a  Miss  Wang.  When  she 
was  thirteen  and  her  betrothal  was  hinted  at,  she 
retired  to  her  room,  drew  blood  from  her  arm,  and 
with  it  wrote  a  sentence  declaring  that  she  would 
remain  single  and  care  for  her  parents.  Her  father 
and  second  brother  were  killed  in  battle  in  1852. 
As  she  could  not  leave  her  mother's  side  to  follow 
her  father's  body  to  the  grave,  she  gashed  her  arm 
and  let  the  stream  of  blood  mingle  with  the  lacquer 
on  the  coffin.  Ten  years  later  she  cut  a  piece  of 
flesh  from  her  left  thigh  to  be  administered  to  her 
mother  during  a  serious  illness.  The  mother  re- 
covered. In  less  than  a  year  the  mother  was  sick 
again,  and  she  repeated  the  operation  with  the 
right  thigh.     Later,  when  her  mother  was  slightly 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  161 

ill,  she  applied  burning  incense  sticks  to  her  arms 
and  put  the  burned  flesh  with  the  medicine.  Such 
conduct  was  regarded  as  most  commendable  and 
very  unusual  on  the  part  of  a  mere  woman. 

This  whole  practice  of  self-torture  is  contrary  to 
the  teachings  of  Christianity.  No  Christians  ever 
indulge  in  it.  As  Christian  influence  spreads,  it  is 
seen  that  this  is  not  the  avenue  of  approach  to  God 
or  a  means  of  securing  either  peace  or  pardon. 
Keligion  must  be  on  an  entirely  different  basis 
from  this.  Thus,  Christianity  cuts  out  the  very 
basis  on  which  religious  self-torture  rests.  Some 
asceticism  and  torture  have  been  for  the  sake  of 
gain.  Here  the  Christian  doctrine,  that  every  man 
should  seek  to  support  himself  and  those  for  whom 
he  is  responsible,  and  do  it  in  a  manner  worthy  of 
a  child  of  God,  takes  away  the  basis  for  such 
asceticism.  The  whole  Christian  idea  of  the  worth 
of  the  body  as  a  temple  of  the  Spirit  makes  its 
mutilation  not  only  useless  but  sinful.  Wherever 
Christian  influence  has  gone,  and  through  preach- 
ing or  through  education  has  dispelled  the  old 
superstitions,  the  practice  of  self-torture  ceases. 
Even  the  agnosticism,  which  is  invading  these  mis- 
sion lands,  tends  in  the  same  direction.  Asceticism 
and  self-torture  are  losing  their  hold  in  the  East. 

Cruel  ordeals  have  been  characteristic  of  savagery 
and  even  of  more  advanced  civilizations.  Certain 
primitive  tribes  of  India  used  boiling  oil.  If  any 
of  the  Kois  died  a  natural  death,  it  was  thought  to 


162    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

be  due  to  the  machinations  of  an  enemy.  The 
most  likely  person  was  settled  upon,  the  corpse 
was  carried  into  his  presence,  and  the  accused  was 
made  to  thrust  his  hand  into  boiling  water  or  oil. 
Siam  and  neighbouring  countries  used  such  tests, 
some  of  them  in  an  exceptionally  cruel  form. 
Poison  was  used  in  Madagascar.  A  well-known 
missionary  of  the  early  days  declared  that  at  that 
time  three  thousand  perished  thus  every  year.  It 
was  computed  that  one-tenth  of  the  people  were 
subjected  to  it  at  some  time  during  their  life,  and 
that  of  these  one-half  perished. 

On  the  continent  of  Africa,  the  ordeal  has  been 
common  and  has  persisted  to  the  present  day.  Old 
Calabar  used  as  the  poison  a  powdered  bean.  A 
different  poisonous  drink  was  used  in  Nyasaland, 
and  cases  of  its  use  were  reported  as  late  as  1893 
by  the  Livingstonia  missionaries.  In  one  tribe 
several  hundreds  of  persons  have  been  compelled 
to  take  the  poison  at  one  time,  of  whom  from 
thirty  to  forty  died.  In  such  cases,  the  rule  was 
that  the  wives  and  children  of  those  who  died 
passed  to  the  accuser.  This  may  account  for  the 
willingness  of  the  people  to  accuse  others  of  witch- 
craft. This  practice  has  played  an  important  role 
in  Africa.  Upon  witchcraft  and  ordeals  rested  the 
whole  legal  system  of  many  African  tribes. 

The  basis  of  all  such  ordeals  lies  partly  in  igno- 
rance of  the  laws  of  evidence.  Still  more  it  rests 
upon  the  belief  that  all  calamities  are  due  to  the 
action  of  spirits  or  of  men,  who  have  caused  them 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  163 

out  of  revenge.  Then,  too,  there  is  a  belief  that  if 
a  person  is  innocent  no  harm  can  result.  Supersti- 
tion and  ignorance  thus  lie  at  the  root  of  such 
customs.  Both  of  these  bases  disappear  under  the 
influence  of  education  and  the  Christian  view  of 
the  world.  Wherever  the  missionary  has  gone,  he 
has  striven  to  put  down  such  needless  cruelty. 

The  missionaries  of  the  Old  Calabar  Mission  in 
Africa  had  a  long  and  hard  struggle  to  suppress 
the  custom.  It  lasted  for  nearly  thirty  years,  but 
finally  resulted  in  victory.  In  1878,  the  British 
consul  and  the  men  of  the  country  drew  up  and 
signed  articles  of  agreement  by  which  any  one 
who  administered  the  poisonous  esere-bean  was  to 
be  executed  as  a  murderer,  whether  the  victim  suc- 
cumbed or  not,  and  any  one  willfully  partaking  of 
the  poison  was  to  be  fined  and  banished  as  guilty 
of  attempted  murder.  It  was  the  testimony  of  the 
consul  that  such  an  agreement  could  never  have 
been  secured  but  for  the  persistent  efforts  of  the 
missionaries  to  suppress  the  custom. 

On  the  Gold  Coast,  natives  have  been  known  to 
declare  themselves  Christians  in  order  to  escape  the 
perils  of  witchcraft  and  poison  ordeals,  because  it 
was  generally  understood  that  Christians  would  not 
tolerate  any  such  customs.  An  American  mission- 
ary in  the  Congo  Valley  secured  an  agreement  from 
all  the  neighbouring  chiefs,  pledging  themselves  to 
prevent  any  further  administration  of  the  poison. 
In  Nyasaland,  the  result  of  missionary  effort  was 
the  gradual  disappearance  of  the  custom,  under  a 


164    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

growing  public  opinion  against  it.  Pastor  Coillard 
with  brave  audacity  preached  before  the  cruel 
Lewanika  against  his  use  of  the  poison  ordeal  and 
in  this  way  and  by  private  interviews  began  the 
abolition  of  the  entire  system  there.  In  Mada- 
gascar, where  the  poison  cup  was  in  constant  use, 
the  fatal  draught  is  never  mixed,  and  this  was  true 
before  the  French  took  the  island.  In  India  this 
savagery  has  been  suppressed  by  government. 

Slavery  is  an  evil  which  has  been  all  but  uni- 
versal. In  Africa  and  in  Asia  slavery  has  gener- 
ally prevailed.  Slavery  has  always  prevailed  in 
Mohammedan  countries.  It  has  existed  in  China, 
Korea,  Siam,  Assam,  some  of  the  native  states  of 
India,  etc.  Japan  appears  to  be  an  important  ex- 
ception, for  here  slavery,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the 
word,  has  not  existed,  although  there  used  to  be 
many  serfs  and  a  class  of  outcastes,  as  will  appear 
later.  It  has  been  universal  in  Africa  and  still  per- 
sists beyond  the  range  of  European  influence.  It  has 
not  been  banished  from  the  Philippines  even  to-day. 
In  some  of  these  countries  the  slavery  is  of  the 
milder  domestic  type.  In  others,  the  only  slavery 
is  that  due  to  the  selling  of  children  or  the  taking 
of  a  person  in  payment  of  debt. 

Wherever  slavery  exists  on  a  large  scale,  there 
must  of  necessity  be  a  trade  in  slaves.  The  slave- 
trade  in  Africa  and  the  South  Seas  annually  took 
its  toll  of  human  lives.  A  generation  or  more  ago, 
it  was  estimated  that  the  number  of  lives  annually 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  165 

sacrificed  through  the  African  slave-trade  was  not 
less  than  half  a  million,  and  that  the  number  ac- 
tually transported,  added  to  those  who  were  exiled 
by  the  burning  of  villages,  would  bring  the  yearly 
toll  of  sufferers  up  to  two  million.  Some  twenty 
years  ago,  nearly  every  important  town  in  Hausa- 
land  had  its  slave  market.  In  one  of  these  the 
average  daily  offering  was  five  hundred  slaves.  A 
missionary  estimated  that  one-third  of  the  popula- 
tion of  that  region  in  the  western  Sudan  were 
slaves.  From  the  Sultanate  of  Zanzibar,  in  1895, 
some  eleven  thousand  were  being  shipped  an- 
nually to  Arabia,  while  the  maintenance  of  the 
number  of  slaves  within  the  Sultanate,  who  com- 
prised two-thirds  of  the  population  of  400,000,  re- 
quired an  additional  importation  of  six  thousand  a 
year. 

Against  these  twin  evils  the  Christian  forces  have 
waged  a  generally  successful  warfare.  For  three 
centuries  the  subjects  of  Christian  nations  carried 
on  the  slave-trade  until  an  aroused  public  sentiment, 
originating  in  and  sustained  by  Christian  principle 
and  feeling,  could  tolerate  it  no  more.  The  traffic 
in  slaves  was  abolished  throughout  the  British  Em- 
pire in  1807,  after  a  struggle  which  had  lasted  for 
twenty  years.  The  United  States  acted  simulta- 
neously with  Great  Britain  and  these  two  nations 
were  quickly  followed  by  others.  The  refusal  of 
the  United  States,  however,  until  1862,  to  grant 
the  Eight  of  Search,  made  it  difficult  actually  to 
abolish  the  trade.     The  American  importation  was 


166    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

estimated  in  1837  at  as  high  as  200,000  annually. 
From  about  this  time,  a  new  crusade  began,  in 
which  the  British  played  the  leading  role,  and  which 
resulted  in  the  suppression  of  the  slave-trade.  Ships 
of  war  were  stationed  along  the  African  coast  to 
prevent  native  boats  from  carrying  slaves  from  the 
continent,  especially  to  Arabia.  Missionaries  co- 
operated by  caring  for  the  rescued  slaves. 

In  all  this  period,  one  heroic  figure  stands  out 
prominently,  that  of  a  Christian  missionary,  David 
Livingstone.  From  soon  after  his  first  journey,  in 
1852,  until  his  death  in  1873,  his  life  was  devoted 
to  the  exposure  of  the  horrors  of  the  African  slave- 
trade  and  to  arousing  the  powers  to  the  need  of  its 
suppression.  His  biographer  Blaikie  thus  summa- 
rizes his  influence :  "  From  the  worn-out  figure 
kneeling  at  the  bedside  in  the  hut  in  Ilala  an  elec- 
tric spark  seemed  to  fly,  quickening  hearts  on  every 
side.  The  statesman  felt  it ;  it  put  new  vigour  into 
the  despatches  he  wrote  and  the  measures  he  de- 
vised with  regard  to  the  slave-trade.  The  mer- 
chant felt  it,  and  began  to  plan  in  earnest  how  to 
traverse  the  continent  with  roads  and  railways,  and 
open  it  to  commerce  from  shore  to  centre.  The 
explorer  felt  it,  and  started  with  high  purpose  on 
new  scenes  of  unknown  danger.  The  missionary 
felt  it, — felt  it  a  reproof  of  past  languor  and  unbe- 
lief, and  found  himself  lifted  up  to  a  higher  level 
of  faith  and  devotion.  No  parliament  of  philan- 
thropy was  held ;  but  the  verdict  was  as  unanimous 
and  as  hearty  as  if  the  Christian  world  had  met  and 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  167 

passed  the  resolution — '  Livingstone's  work  shall 
not  die :  Africa  shall  live  f9ni 

The  great  authority  on  British  Central  Africa  is 
Sir  Harry  H.  Johnston.  His  testimony  to  the  in- 
fluence of  Livingstone  is  unequivocal.  He  writes  : 
"  Dr.  Livingstone,  however,  appeared  on  the  scene, 
and  his  appeals  to  the  British  public  gradually  drew 
our  attention  to  the  slave-trade  in  Eastern  Central 
Africa,  until,  as  the  direct  result  of  Livingstone's 
work,  slavery  and  the  slave-trade  are  now  at  an  end 
within  the  British  Central  Africa  Protectorate,  and 
are  fast  disappearing  in  the  regions  beyond  under 
the  South  Africa  Company;  and  the  abolition  of 
slavery  in  Zanzibar  will  shortly  be  decreed  as  a 
final  triumph  to  Livingstone's  appeal."2  The 
status  of  slavery  was  abolished  in  Zanzibar  in 
1897,  shortly  after  Sir  Harry  H.  Johnston  had  pub- 
lished this  statement. 

The  Universities'  Mission  to  Central  Africa  has 
had  for  one  of  its  chief  objects  "  the  ultimate  ex- 
tinction of  the  slave-trade."  Bishop  Mackenzie  in- 
duced chiefs  to  agree  not  to  permit  the  slave-trade 
or  to  buy  or  sell  slaves.  In  Lewanika's  country, 
traffic  in  slaves  was  stopped  under  the  influence  of 
Coillard.  The  internal  slave-trade  has  also  been 
abolished  within  the  sphere  of  European  influence, 
except  for  isolated  instances  under  Portuguese  or 
Belgian  rule.  It  was  the  Christian  queen  of  Mada- 
gascar who,  in  1877,  declared  that  any  slave  im- 

1  Blaikie,  "  Personal  Life  of  David  Livingstone,"  p.  480. 
9  Johnston,  "  British  Central  Africa,"  p.  157. 


168    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

ported  into  the  island  should  be  set  free,  and  thus 
stamped  out  the  slave-trade  there,  the  suppression 
of  which  had  been  provided  for  in  a  treaty  with 
Great  Britain  half  a  century  before. 

Equally  important  have  been  the  efforts  to  sup- 
press the  institution  of  slavery  itself.  One  of  the 
most  notable  victories  of  missionaries  at  this  point 
did  not  occur  in  the  East,  but  in  the  West.  This 
was  the  fight  that  was  waged  in  the  West  Indies, 
centering  in  Jamaica.  It  was  maintained  in  spite 
of  the  most  determined  opposition.  The  slave 
owners  went  so  far  as  to  foment  a  slave  insurrec- 
tion and  then  charged  it  against  the  missionaries. 
The  fight,  however,  was  won  in  1834  and  resulted 
in  the  total  abolition  of  slavery.  Some  of  the 
freed  slaves  wished  to  return  as  missionaries  to 
West  Africa,  to  the  very  region  from  which  they 
had  been  kidnapped.  They  declared  their  willing- 
ness to  do  this  at  the  risk  of  reenslavement.  "  We 
have  been  made  slaves  for  men,"  they  said,  "  we 
can  be  made  slaves  for  Christ." 

Christian  influence  abolished  slavery  from  the 
Christian  community  in  Old  Calabar.  The  law 
recognized  but  two  classes  of  persons,  slaveholders 
and  slaves;  free  servants  had  no  legal  status. 
Under  Christian  teaching,  public  sentiment  changed 
until,  in  1854,  a  declaration  was  drawn  up,  which 
all  Christian  slaveholders  were  compelled  to  sign 
when  they  united  with  the  church.  According 
to  this,  they  solemnly  promised  to  regard  their 
slaves    as  servants,   not  as  property;    pay  them 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  169 

just  wages;  encourage  them  to  obtain  education 
for  themselves  and  their  children,  and  to  attend 
religious  worship;  sell  no  slave  unless  he  was 
liable  to  suffer  death  and  could  not  be  other- 
wise banished ;  endeavour  to  secure  the  abolition 
of  slavery  ;  set  the  slaves  free  as  soon  as  it  should 
be  legally  possible ;  and  treat  them  in  accordance 
with  the  Golden  Kule.1  In  1893,  forty  native 
chiefs  in  Uganda,  who  had  become  Protestant 
Christians,  freed  all  their  slaves.  The  status  of 
slavery  was  abolished  in  the  territory  of  the  Koyal 
Niger  Company  in  1897.  The  first  step  towards 
this  notable  achievement  on  the  West  Coast  was 
taken  by  the  missionaries,  by  whose  aid  the  govern- 
ment officials  made  their  first  approaches  into  the 
territory  affected. 

It  is  not  only  in  the  suppression  of  such  cruel 
customs  as  the  foregoing  that  there  has  been  ethical 
progress  among  Christians  and  under  the  influence 
of  Christianity.  Similar  results  may  be  cited  in 
such  matters  as  truthfulness  and  honesty.  The 
situation  here  is  one  which  the  people  of  the  West 
can  hardly  appreciate.  We  regard  truthfulness  as 
the  very  corner-stone  of  all  virtue,  beside  which 
most  of  the  other  virtues  are  of  minor  importance. 
Courtesy,  politeness,  and  the  like  are  all  right 
enough  in  themselves,  but  a  lack  of  these  may 
easily  be  condoned.  Not  so  in  the  Orient.  Here 
the  order  is  reversed,  and  truthfulness  tends  to  be 
1  Dennis,  J.  S.,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  II,  p.  325. 


170    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

regarded  either  as  no  virtue  at  all,  or  at  best  as  a 
rather  minor  one.  Even  native  Christians  in  India 
have  been  known  to  declare  to  a  missionary  to 
whom  they  were  devoted  that  they  would  lie  in 
order  to  please  or  help  him.  I  have  been  credibly 
informed  of  a  case  in  China,  where  Christians  con- 
fessed sins  of  which  they  were  not  conscious  out  of 
loyalty  to  a  dearly  beloved  missionary.  When 
such  statements  as  this  are  true,  one  can  imagine 
that  truthfulness  is  not  to  be  expected  to  mark  the 
non-Christian  community.  An  authority  on  China, 
like  Douglas,  declared  that  "  a  universal  dishonesty 
of  mind  poisons  the  sap  of  the  nation  and  produces 
all  the  cancers  and  evils  which  have  made  China  a 
byword  for  deceit  and  corruption."  An  educated 
native  Christian  in  India  declared  to  a  missionary, 
"You  who  have  been  born  in  Christian  families 
and  have  been  trained  from  infancy  to  speak  the 
truth  and  to  hate  lying,  can  have  no  idea  of  the 
difficulty  we  Bengalis  have  in  overcoming  the 
natural  tendency  in  us  to  lying  and  deceit.  You 
are  taught  that  it  is  dishonourable  and  evil  to  lie ; 
we  are  taught  that  the  dishonour  is  not  in  lying, 
but  in  being  discovered." 

In  spite  of  these  handicaps,  the  Christian  com- 
munity has  made  marked  progress  in  the  direction  of 
greater  reliability.  A  few  illustrations  must  suffice 
at  this  point.  When  the  Japanese  invaded  For- 
mosa, they  used  as  guides,  wherever  possible,  the 
native  Christians ;  for  these,  they  knew,  could  be 
trusted.      On    reaching  a  village,   they  inquired 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  171 

whether  there  were  any  native  Christians,  and  then 
they  compelled  these  to  assist  them.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  "  Black  Flags  "  killed  the  Christians,  be- 
cause of  the  certainty  that  they  would  not  play 
false.  Again,  a  Buddhist  orange  merchant  in  Japan 
praised  his  oranges  and  added,  "  I  don't  lie ;  I  am 
a  Christian."  This  statement  was  itself  a  lie,  but 
the  incident  illustrates  the  reputation  of  the  Chris- 
tians. Similar  testimony  comes  from  China  and 
India.  A  non-Christian  Chinese  in  Shensi  was 
asked  whether  he  saw  any  good  points  about  the 
Christians.  He  replied,  "  Yes,  there  are  three 
things  I  am  bound  to  admire.  (1)  There  is  no 
need  to  watch  our  crops  around  their  villages. 

(2)  They  neither  sow,   sell,  nor  swallow   opium. 

(3)  They  cause  little  trouble  in  paying  their  taxes." 
A  law  case  in  a  district  in  India,  where  the  fruits 
of  Christian  work  had  proved  discouraging,  is  also 
to  the  point.  A  group  of  men  were  called  as  wit- 
nesses in  a  trial  which  involved  their  landlord,  who 
was  in  a  position  to  injure  them.  It  was  supposed 
that  their  testimony  would,  therefore,  be  favourable 
to  him  ;  but  no,  their  statements  were  against  him. 
They  had  heard  the  Bible,  had  learned  that  a  lie 
was  wrong,  and  hence  refused  to  utter  the  lie 
that  would  have  helped  them  financially.  In  an- 
other place,  a  company  of  shopkeepers  formed 
a  combination  of  a  strange  sort.  Their  agree- 
ment was  not  to  keep  up  prices,  or  to  increase 
their  profits,  but  to  carry  on  their  trade  without 
lying. 


172    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

The  introducton,  in  and  through  the  Christian 
community,  of  these  higher  standards  of  conduct  is 
not  the  only  sign  of  ethical  progress.  Christianity 
is  also  producing  a  new  type  of  personality,  that  of 
the  incorruptible,  public-spirited  Christian,  who  is 
seeking  not  his  own  salvation  but  the  welfare  of 
others.  In  Buddhism,  Hinduism,  and  Confucianism 
there  is  little  public  spirit.  All  is  selfish.  The 
officials  in  the  Old  China  were  in  office  for  what 
they  could  make  out  of  it.  The  roads  were  neg- 
lected because  any  one  repairing  them  would  bene- 
fit others  more  than  himself.  Temples  and  such 
buildings  were  erected,  but  as  works  of  merit  and 
in  order  to  advance  the  spiritual  interests  of  the 
builders  or  to  increase  their  reputation.  Only  in 
Japan  does  there  seem  to  have  been  any  great  feeling 
of  patriotism  and  of  willingness  to  serve  and  to  die 
for  one's  country.  Buddhism  and  Hinduism  embody 
many  high  ideals  and  aim  at  union  with  the  divine. 
But  salvation  is  a  personal  matter,  and  does  not  in- 
clude the  service  of  others.  Mozumdar  was  a  great 
theistic  reformer  of  Hinduism,  and  was  regarded  by 
many  as  almost,  if  not  quite,  a  Christian.  He 
showed  his  deep  appreciation  of  the  Saviour  in  his 
remarkable  book,  "The  Oriental  Christ."  Yet 
even  this  man  could  not  get  away  from  the  ideals 
of  his  old  religion,  and  towards  the  end  of  his  life 
he  retired  to  the  solitudes  of  the  Himalayas.  He 
left  in  explanation  of  this  course  a  pathetic  state- 
ment, which  is  worth  quoting : 

"  Age  and  sickness  get  the  better  of  me  in  these 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  173 

surroundings.  I  cannot  work  as  I  would— contem- 
plation is  distracted,  concentration  disturbed,  though 
I  struggle  ever  so  much.  These  solitudes  are  hos- 
pitable ;  these  breadths,  heights  and  depths  are 
always  suggestive.  I  acquire  more  spirit  with  less 
struggle,  hence  I  retire. 

"  My  thirst  for  the  higher  life  is  growing  so  un- 
quenchable that  I  need  the  time  and  the  grace  to 
reexamine  and  purify  and  reform  every  part  of  my 
existence.  The  Spirit  of  God  promises  me  that 
grace  if  I  am  alone.     So  let  me  alone. 

"  The  rich  are  so  vain  and  selfish,  the  poor  are  so 
insolent  and  mean,  that  having  respect  for  both  I 
prefer  to  go  away  from  them. 

"  The  learned  think  so  highly  of  themselves,  the 
ignorant  are  so  full  of  hatred  and  uncharitableness, 
that  having  good-will  for  both  I  prefer  to  hide  my- 
self from  all. 

"  The  religious  are  so  exclusive,  the  skeptical  are 
so  self-sufficient,  that  it  is  better  to  be  away  from 
both. 

"What  are  the  dead?  Have  they  not  too  re- 
tired? I  wish  my  acquaintance  with  the  dead 
should  grow,  that  my  communion  with  them  should 
be  spontaneous,  perpetual,  unceasing.  I  will  in- 
voke them  and  wait  for  them  in  my  hermitage. 

"  What  is  life  ?  Is  it  not  a  fleeting  shadow,  the 
graveyard  of  dead  hopes,  the  battle-field  of  ghastly 
competitions,  the  playground  of  delusions,  separa- 
tions, cruel  changes  and  disappointments  ?  I  have 
had  enough  of  these.     And  now  with  the  kindliest 


174    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

love  for  all,  I  must  prepare  and  sanctify  myself  for 
the  great  Beyond  where  there  is  solution  for  so 
many  problems  and  consolation  for  so  many 
troubles."  J 

Contrast  with  this  the  type  of  personality  created 
by  Christianity  in  various  mission  fields.  Consider 
a  man  like  Chief  Khama  of  Bechuanaland.  From 
those  days  when,  as  a  young  man,  he  dared  the 
anger  of  his  father  and  his  chief  and  risked  death 
for  disobedience  rather  than  enter  into  a  polyga- 
mous marriage,  through  all  the  days  of  his  own  rule, 
he  has  sought  to  enforce  Christian  standards  among 
his  people.  There  has  recently  passed  away  in 
Natal  a  simple  Zulu  preacher,  who  as  a  young 
man  went  out  into  a  region  of  rank  heathenism. 
The  people  did  not  want  him  and  threatened  to 
kill  him,  but  he  stuck  to  his  post  and  to-day  that 
whole  region  is  Christianized ;  and  all  this  was 
achieved  without  the  aid  of  a  missionary  or  of  for- 
eign money.  Or  take  the  leaders  of  the  Christian 
Church  in  India,  like  Mr.  Tilak,  the  Maratha  Chris- 
tian poet,  or  Bishop  Azariah  whose  heritage  is  of 
the  lowliest  but  who  has  been  a  power  among  In- 
dian students  and  who  is  now  the  first  Indian 
bishop  of  the  Anglican  Church  in  India.  Go  to 
China  and  what  higher  type  of  Christian  can  one 
find  anywhere  in  the  world  than  that  simple  pas- 
tor-evangelist, Kev.  Ding  Li  Mei  ?  Through  his 
efforts  hundreds,  yes  thousands,  of  the  Christian 
youth  of  China  have  turned  deliberately  away  from 

1  Jones,  J.  P.,  "India's  Problem,  Krishna  or  Christ,"  p.  350. 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  1 75 

the  hope  of  lucrative  positions  in  order  to  prepare 
themselves  for  leadership  in  the  Christian  commu- 
nity. In  Japan  there  are  scores  of  Christian  leaders 
who  have  revealed  to  the  Japanese  people  the  possi- 
bilities of  a  Christian  character. 

The  report  of  Commission  IV  to  the  Edinburgh 
Conference,  which  treated  of  the  missionary  mes- 
sage, is  suggestive  at  this  point.  No  reader  of  this 
remarkable  book  can  help  being  struck  with  the 
statement  again  and  again  that  one  of  the  most 
powerful  forces  attracting  persons  to  Christianity 
is  the  life  of  the  Christians.  Because  of  the  demon- 
stration in  the  lives  of  individuals  of  the  ability  of 
Christianity  to  create  a  new  type  of  manhood  and 
womanhood,  others  are  compelled  to  believe  that 
Christianity  has  a  power  of  which  they  have  not 
dreamed.     Such  evidence  cannot  be  gainsaid. 

Take  India,  for  instance.  What  is  the  greatest 
apologetic  that  Christianity  can  present  ?  What  it 
has  done  for  the  outcastes.  Hinduism  believes 
these  submerged  millions  to  be  less  than  human. 
Such  people  used  to  be  treated  worse  than  the  cow 
or  even  the  monkey,  who  might  be  sacred.  They 
were  doomed  to  this  existence  because  of  sins  com- 
mitted in  some  previous  existence,  and  there  was 
absolutely  no  hope  for  them.  And  then  the  Chris- 
tian missionary  appeared,  reached  out  to  these  de- 
spised ones,  educated  them,  made  them  men  and 
women,  until  the  second  generation,  if  not  the  first, 
has  produced  men  of  culture  and  influence.  They 
teach  schools  in  which  Brahmans  are  pupils.     A 


176    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

Christian  in  South  India,  who  came  from  the  car- 
rion-eaters, the  lowest  of  the  low,  is  mayor  of  a 
city,  and  this  Christian  pastor  is  treated  in  his 
official  capacity  by  the  Brahmans  as  their  equal. 
Such  miracles  were  unheard  of  before,  and  men 
have  seen  that  even  these  lowest,  when  touched  by 
Christ,  can  be  made  ethically  and  intellectually 
equal  or  even  superior  to  those  whom  Hinduism 
pronounced  of  finer  stuff.  Christianity  is,  indeed, 
creating  a  new  type  of  personality,  and  such  a  re- 
ligion commends  itself  to  open-minded  men. 

The  effect  of  this  rising  standard  of  morals  and 
this  new  type  of  character  is  to  produce  ethical 
changes  beyond  the  ranks  of  the  Christians.  This 
is  seen  in  all  the  great  countries  of  Asia,  such  as 
China,  Japan,  and  India. 

The  twin  evils  of  China  have  been  opium  and 
gambling  among  men,  with  foot-binding  as  a  cruel 
and  disabling  custom  affecting  women.  Years  ago 
China  was  a  nation  of  heavy  drinkers,  but  sub- 
sequently threw  that  vice  completely  off.  JSTow  it 
is  engaged  in  a  life-and-death  struggle  to  throw 
off  the  opium  habit,  with  the  purpose  of  making 
China  strong.  There  is  no  need  of  dwelling 
upon  the  earlier  struggles  of  China  against  this 
evil,  but  it  is  interesting  to  call  attention  to  the 
connection  which  missionaries  have  had  with  the 
present  attempt.  In  May,  1906,  Dr.  DuBose  of 
Soochow,  President  of  the  Anti-Opium  League, 
had  an  interview   with  the  Governor-General  of 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  177 

the  River  Provinces,  who  promised  to  forward  to 
Peking  a  memorial  signed  by  missionaries  of  ail 
nationalities.  This  promise  was  at  once  taken  up, 
and  in  August  there  arrived  at  Nanking  a  petition 
of  sheets  from  450  cities,  with  1,333  signatures. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  result  of  this  petition  was 
the  issuing  of  the  edict  of  September  20,  1906, 
which  urged  the  speedy  suppression  of  the  opium 
habit.  In  January,  1907,  the  Chinese  Government 
ordered  the  viceroys  to  reduce  poppy  growing  by 
one-half  before  the  spring  of  1908.  By  May,  the 
opium  dens  in  Foochow  and  Peking  were  closed, 
and  the  next  month  the  edict  was  issued  prohibit- 
ing opium  smoking  and  planting.  Other  more 
stringent  edicts  followed  ;  and  then  came  the  inter- 
national opium  conference  in  1909,  with  a  second 
conference  three  years  later.  In  March,  1909, 
Viceroy  Tuan  Fang  reported  that  3,000,000  people 
had  given  up  the  opium  habit  since  the  issuing  of 
the  decrees,  that  opium  smokers  had  been  reduced 
sixty-five  per  cent.,  and  that  the  cultivation  of  the 
poppy  and  the  revenue  from  opium  had  been  de- 
creased one-half.  The  government  has  sacrificed 
from  100,000,000  to  150,000,000  taels  of  revenue. 
Some  opium  smokers  have  died  as  the  result  of 
breaking  off  the  habit.  Substitutes  are  coming  in, 
and  the  fight  may  not  be  won  for  a  generation ; 
but  the  progress  has  been  marvellous  and  far  be- 
yond the  expectations  of  the  most  sanguine.1 

The  new  penal  code  of  China  prescribes  severe 

1  "  China  Mission  Year  Book,  1910,"  pp.  11,  12,  398  et  seq. 


1 78    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

penalties  for  manufacturing,  dealing  in,  storing  for 
later  sale,  or  importing  opium ;  for  making,  selling, 
storing  for  later  sale,  or  importing  opium-smoking 
instruments;  for  smuggling  or  permitting  the 
smuggling  of  opium  or  the  smoking  instruments; 
for  opening  opium  dens;  for  planting  the  poppy 
for  the  manufacture  of  opium ;  for  smoking  opium 
or  failing  to  enforce  these  regulations.1  There  is 
such  solidarity  in  the  Chinese  people  that  when 
they  make  up  their  mind  to  do  a  thing,  especially 
if  it  has  an  ethical  bearing  and  is  designed  to 
benefit  their  country,  they  carry  it  through.  The 
need  of  the  reform  may  be  judged  from  the  state- 
ment that  in  certain  of  the  remoter  provinces  as 
many  as  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  men  and  fifty  per 
cent,  of  the  women  were  addicted  to  the  use  of  the 
drug.  It  is  the  poor  man's  vice.  A  few  cash  are 
sufficient  to  enable  a  man  to  forget  his  miseries,  his 
poor  home,  scanty  clothing,  and  insufficient  food. 

Gambling  has  been  the  other  evil  in  China,  and 
has  been  indulged  in  by  people  in  all  ranks  of  so- 
ciety. The  moral  interest  aroused  in  the  crusade 
against  opium  has,  in  certain  quarters,  resulted  in 
a  movement  to  suppress  gambling,  or  at  least  to 
separate  the  government  from  connection  with  it. 
For  some  years  there  has  been  growing  in  Canton 
a  feeling  that  the  government  should  not  exploit 
this  vice  for  the  purpose  of  gain.  In  this  city  the 
licenses  from  gambling  establishments  have  pro- 
duced no  inconsiderable  part  of  the  provincial 
1  "  China  Mission  Year  Book,  1911,"  p.  445  et  seq. 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  179 

revenue.  The  provincial  assembly  passed  a  resolu- 
tion urging  the  viceroy  to  abolish  the  system.  Be- 
cause of  the  revenue  difficulty  which  would  result, 
he  temporized.  The  gentry  came  to  the  support  of 
the  assembly  and  carried  the  matter  to  Peking, 
with  the  result  that  finally  in  March,  1911,  the 
revenue  from  gambling  was  abolished,  and  strict 
regulations  were  issued  against  public  gambling.5 

In  all  this,  the  Christians  have  been  setting  an  ex- 
ample to  the  other  Chinese.  Every  Christian  has 
been  required  to  give  up  gambling.  Some  of  the 
most  prominent  Christian  workers  have  been  con- 
verted gamblers.  One  Christian  in  JNmgpo  lapsed 
back  into  the  habit,  but  when  he  came  to  himself, 
his  repentance  was  so  deep  that,  in  Chinese  fashion, 
he  chopped  off  a  finger  so  that  it  would  remind 
him  never  to  do  it  again.  A  missionary  was  once 
lamenting  the  little  spiritual  progress  of  the  Chris- 
tians in  a  certain  village.  Thereupon  one  of  the 
prominent  church  members  replied,  "  Sir,  you  don't 
know.  Formerly,  before  we  knew  the  truth, 
gambling  was  common ;  now  it  has  been  utterly 
abolished.  Then  we  had  feuds  and  lawsuits  every 
month ;  now  harmony  prevails." 

Foot-binding  is,  for  China,  a  modern  custom,  dat- 
ing from  long  after  the  time  of  Confucius,  but  it 
has  entailed  untold  suffering  upon  the  part  of  women 
and  has  condemned  them  to  lives  of  comparative 
idleness.  The  early  missionaries  so  vividly  realized 
the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  removing  this  custom 
1  "  China  Mission  Year  Book,  1911,"  p.  47. 


180    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

that  they  took  no  positive  stand  against  it.  About 
forty  years  ago,  however,  the  attitude  changed. 
Schools  for  girls  began  to  require  that  all  their 
pupils  should  unbind  their  feet  as  a  condition  of  re- 
maining in  the  school.  The  first  allusion  to  such  a 
rule  that  Dr.  Dennis  was  able  to  discover  dated 
from  1870.  At  about  this  time,  in  1877,  it  came  to 
be  understood  in  at  least  two  missions  in  Foochow 
that  no  church  member  was  to  bind  the  feet  of  his 
daughters.  About  this  time  Dr.  Macgowan  and 
other  missionaries  in  Amoy  organized  the  Anti- 
Foot-Binding  Association,  with  a  membership  of 
over  forty. 

This  was  in  1874.  The  result  of  all  these  move- 
ments was  that  there  gradually  appeared  a  group 
of  women  with  natural  feet,  who  were  neither 
slaves  nor  working  people  and  entirely  respectable. 
Twenty  years  later,  the  movement  took  on  new  life 
and  enlisted  the  aggressive  support,  not  only  of  the 
missionary  ladies,  but  of  the  Chinese  and  civilians. 
A  Natural-Foot  Association  was  organized  in  1894, 
at  Shanghai,  composed  of  these  varied  elements, 
and  through  publications  and  in  other  ways  an  ac- 
tive propaganda  was  carried  on.  To  the  leadership 
of  this  movement  came  Mrs.  Archibald  Little,  who 
devoted  years  of  time  and  much  money  to  this  re- 
form. Still  more  recently,  this  movement  has  been 
taken  up  by  the  Chinese,  and  whereas  formerly  the 
Chinese  ladies  made  their  feet  look  as  small  as  possi- 
ble, it  is  declared  that  in  some  places  women  with 
small  feet  pretend  to  have  natural  feet. 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  181 

A  Chinese  friend  in  Shansi  remarked  to  me, 
when  I  called  on  him  in  1908,  that  he  believed  that 
within  ten  years  there  would  be  no  bound  feet  left 
in  China.  That  is  expecting  too  much,  but  the 
ethical  revival  in  China,  which  is  crushing  out 
political  corruption,  the  opium  degradation,  and 
the  gambling  mania,  will  help  also  this  movement 
for  relieving  the  women  of  China  of  one  of  their 
greatest  disabilities,  the  cause  of  untold  misery. 
Foot-binding  has  already  been  declared  illegal. 

The  ethical  revivals  in  Japan  and  India  centre 
chiefly  around  questions  relating  to  purity.  The 
moral  standards  in  Japan  are  far  below  what  they 
should  be.  To  be  sure,  one  might  conclude  from 
the  fact  that  prostitution  is  licensed,  that  the  situa- 
tion there  is  worse  than  it  really  is.  Dr.  Griffis  es- 
timated that  in  the  early  days  of  the  New  Japan 
but  five  per  cent,  of  the  population  actually  prac- 
ticed concubinage,  although  this  may  have  been 
twenty  per  cent,  of  the  population  financially  able  to 
afford  such  a  luxury.1  The  licensed  quarters  are  un- 
der strict  control  and  are  the  first  to  be  searched 
when  a  crime  is  committed.  In  many  cases  they 
are  outside  the  city.  Vice  is  never  so  open  as  in 
some  cities  of  the  West.  Yet,  when  all  possible  al- 
lowance has  been  made  for  this,  it  yet  remains  true 
that  illicit  relations  between  the  sexes  are  far  too 
common.  Facts  could  be  adduced  which  would  re- 
veal the  extent  to  which  this  vice  invades  the  pub- 

1  Griffis,  W.  E.,  "Mikado's  Empire,"  p.  557. 


/ 


182    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

lie  educational  institutions.  All  this  is  due  largely 
to  the  fact  that  the  Japanese,  even  more  than 
Western  people,  have  maintained  two  standards  of 
morals,  one  for  men  and  another  for  women. 
Bakin,  the  great  teacher  of  Japan  through  fiction, 
taught  this.  Jealousy  is  regarded  as  a  womanly 
sin,  and  is  represented  as  a  female  demon.  Chastity 
in  Japanese  signifies  womanly  duties,  and  one  can- 
not express  the  idea  of  male  chastity  without  a  cir- 
cumlocution. A  pure  girl  will,  at  the  command  of 
her  father  or  for  the  sake  of  her  parents,  enter  a 
brothel.  An  inmate  may  marry  a  relatively  re- 
spectable man  and  have  her  past  buried. 

Christians  have  waged  relentless  war  against  this 
institution.  In  1890,  the  native  Christians  of  Kyoto 
petitioned  the  government  for  the  abolition  of  li- 
censed prostitution.  Christian  Japanese  in  Cali- 
fornia succeeded  in  stopping  the  traffic  in  Japanese 
girls  in  San  Francisco.  Some  years  ago,  when 
much  of  the  licensed  quarter  in  Osaka  was  burned, 
the  Christians,  Japanese  and  missionary,  succeeded 
in  preventing  its  rebuilding  in  immediate  proximity 
to  the  railway  station.  Similar  action  was  taken 
in  Tokyo  after  the  recent  conflagration  there.  In 
the  city  of  Maebashi,  the  Christians  have  succeeded 
in  preventing  the  licensing  of  prostitution  in  that 
city,  even  though  many  merchants  desire  it,  at  least 
during  the  time  of  a  large  county  fair. 

These  protests  by  Christians  against  impurity 
have  had  a  far-reaching  influence.  A  paper  by  a 
Japanese,   published    as  long  ago  as  1896,   paid 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  183 

tribute  to  the  impression  made  upon  the  Japanese 
mind  by  the  Christians'  insistence  upon  the  doc- 
trines of  monogamy  and  personal  purity.  "  I  do 
not  mean  to  say  that  the  Japanese  people  have 
been,  as  a  rule,  polygamous,  or  that  womanhood 
among  them,  especially  in  the  better  classes,  had 
not  a  very  high  ideal  of  faithfulness  and  chastity. 
But  monogamy  as  the  only  true  principle  of  social 
order,  and  purity  as  obligatory  upon  men  as  upon 
women,  was  never  properly  understood.  If  to-day 
our  best  ethical  opinion  has  practically  endorsed 
these  truths,  we  must  give  a  large  measure  of  credit 
to  the  foreign  missionaries  who  have  been  living 
among  us  for  nearly  forty  years."  '  A  native  paper 
about  the  same  time  declared  that  there  was  not  a 
boy  or  girl  in  the  empire  who  had  not  heard  the 
one-man-one-woman  doctrine,  while  their  ideas  of 
loyalty  and  obedience  were  higher  than  ever.  And 
the  paper  declared  that  the  cause  of  this  advance 
wa»  none  other  than  the  religion  of  Jesus. 

A  similar  awakening  has  been  witnessed  in  all 
the  ethical  thinking  of  the  empire.  The  spirit  of 
the  literature  in  the  Tokugawa  period  was  Bud- 
dhistic in  its  ethics  and  its  philosophy.  That  of 
the  Meiji  period,  just  closed,  is  declared  to  have 
been  Christian.  Christian  standards  are  held  up 
before  the  people.  The  nation  is  so  proud  of  its 
past  and  so  sensitive  of  all  criticism  that  it  is  setting 
itself  earnestly  to  the  task  of  reforming  its  customs 
and  institutions  until  no  one  can  point  the  finger  of 
tennis,  J.  S.,  op.  •&.,  Vol.  II,  p.  142. 


184    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

scorn  at  Japan.  The  difficulty  arises  from  the  fact 
that  in  not  one  of  the  religions  of  Japan  is  there  a 
moral  dynamic  equal  to  the  task,  and  the  educated 
youth  of  Japan  find  no  sufficient  moral  sanction  in 
their  agnostic  or  positively  atheistic  position.  In 
nothing  short  of  Christianity  will  they  find  a  power 
that  can  accomplish  such  a  task. 

India  has  suffered  from  these  same  evils,  only 
there  they  are  even  worse  because  they  are  but- 
tressed by  the  religion  of  the  people.  This  renders 
them  almost  immune  from  attack  by  a  government 
which  is  pledged  to  neutrality  in  all  matters  of 
religion.  Apart  from  the  question  of  the  moral 
standards  of  the  individual,  the  chief  evils  are  three 
in  number :  indecency  in  art  and  literature,  indecency 
in  worship  and  religious  festivals,  and  religious 
prostitution. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  there  is  hardly  a  god 
in  the  Hindu  pantheon  who  did  not  violate  the 
laws  of  purity,  some  of  them  on  a  wholesale  scale 
and  in  the  most  disgraceful  manner.  Temples  are 
often  ornamented  with  obscene  representations  of 
these  gods.  Especially  in  South  India,  there  are 
temple  cars  on  which  the  gods  ride  during  festivals. 
These  have  been  erected  at  public  expense  and  have 
stood  out  in  the  open  where  the  children  in  the 
neighbourhood  have  played  around  them.  Usually 
these  cars  are  ornamented  with  carvings  of  this  char- 
acter. When  the  British  Government  attacked  the 
obscenity  of  the  land  some  years  ago,  it  was  neces- 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  185 

sary  to  add  this  proviso  :  "  This  Section  does  not 
extend  to  any  representation  sculptured,  engraved, 
painted,  or  otherwise  represented  on  or  in  any 
temple  or  on  any  car  used  for  the  conveyance  of 
idols,  or  kept  or  used  for  any  religious  purpose." 
This  was  added  because  the  government  was  con- 
vinced, upon  the  testimony  of  British  and  native 
officials,  that  "native  public  opinion  was  (is)  not 
yet  sufficiently  advanced  to  permit  the  destruction 
of  such  indecencies." '  At  the  same  time,  it  is  a 
sign  of  progress  that,  in  at  least  some  villages  and 
cities  of  South  India,  the  temple  cars  are  no  longer 
out  in  the  open,  but  are  under  cover,  bricked  up,  so 
that  they  are  invisible  except  when  in  actual  use. 

The  more  enlightened  people  are  becoming 
ashamed  of  the  obscene  carvings  and  paintings. 
This  was  evident  when,  a  few  years  since,  a  mis- 
sionary in  North  India  purchased  for  me  some 
photographs  of  the  decorations  in  one  of  the  most 
sacred  temples,  but  one  that  is  not  open  to  the 
public.  The  man  had  the  photographs  but  he  was 
evidently  ashamed  to  have  them  seen  by  foreigners. 
The  native  literature  contains  books  and  passages 
so  vile  that  they  cannot  be  published  in  English, 
and  the  government  has  punished  men  for  attempt- 
ing it.  For  the  same  reason,  the  universities  can- 
not use  some  of  the  literary  classics. 

Then,  too,  the  public  religious  festivals  used  to 
contain  features  of  the  most  disgusting  indecency. 
They  were  so  vile  that  no  detailed  description  may 

tennis,  J.  S.,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  I,  p.  90. 


186    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

be  printed  in  English.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
worship  of  certain  sects.  The  festival  Holi  is 
celebrated  all  over  India,  and  this  is  one  of  the 
most  unholy  of  all.  In  the  old  days  no  decent 
woman  would  be  seen  upon  the  streets  at  such 
times,  and  acts  were  performed  publicly  which  are 
too  bad  even  to  hint  at.  JSTow  public  sentiment  has 
arisen  against  these  excesses  and  they  have  been 
appreciably  toned  down.  Hindu  teachers  devise 
games  to  keep  their  pupils  from  participating  in 
these  demoralizing  festivities.  In  this  they  but 
follow  the  example  of  the  Christian  teachers. 

Finally,  in  India  the  public  woman  has  a  recog- 
nized place  in  society.  The  dancing  girl  has  been 
the  only  means  by  which  an  Indian  gentleman 
could  entertain  his  guests.  Women  of  this  char- 
acter are  a  necessary  factor  in  every  marriage  cere- 
mony. The  marriage  necklace,  which  corresponds 
to  our  wedding  ring,  has  to  be  tied  by  such  a  woman, 
for  she  can  never  become  a  widow,  and  hence  her 
presence  is  a  good  omen.  The  leaders  in  social  re- 
form in  India  have  come  out  openly  against  this, 
and  the  anti-nautch  movement  has  had  a  large 
growth.  It  was  not  until  a  comparatively  recent 
period  that  the  British  officials  began  to  take  a 
stand  against  having  their  hosts  entertain  them  by 
means  of  the  nautch  dances.  This  was  the  more 
natural,  because  their  real  significance  is  not  appar- 
ent except  to  the  initiated.  The  Indian  Social 
Conference,  in  1895,  unanimously  passed  a  resolu- 
tion which    read:    "The  Conference  records  its 


Progress  in  Ethical  Ideals  187 

satisfaction  that  the  anti-nautch  movement  has 
found  such  general  support  in  all  parts  of  India, 
and  it  recommends  the  various  Social  Keform  As- 
sociations in  the  county  to  persevere  in  their  adop- 
tion of  this  self-denying  ordinance,  and  to  supple- 
ment it  by  pledging  their  members  to  adhere  to 
the  cardinal  principle  of  observing  on  all  occasions, 
as  a  religious  duty,  purity  of  thought,  speech,  and 
action,  so  as  to  purge  our  society  generally  of  the 
evils  of  low  and  immoral  surroundings."  "  At  this 
same  time,  influential  citizens  of  Madras  petitioned 
the  British  officials  to  discountenance  such  forms  of 
entertainment.  In  1896  Lord  Elgin  requested  his 
host  in  Madras  to  stop  a  dance  which  had  been  pro- 
vided against  the  protests  of  the  reform  element. 

Of  a  similar  character  to  the  nautch-girls,  and  in 
some  regions  identical  with  them,  are  the  temple 
girls.  These  women  are  known  under  various 
names  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  They  are 
married  in  young  girlhood  to  some  god  or  to  the 
dagger  of  the  god  Khandoba.  They  sing  and 
dance  before  the  god  and  perform  on  festival  occa- 
sions. Their  real  life,  however,  is  that  of  religious 
prostitutes,  and  they  are  thus  used  by  the  priests 
and  other  worshippers.  The  number  of  these  is 
not  accurately  known,  but  it  goes  up  into  the  tens, 
if  not  into  the  hundreds,  of  thousands.  The  British 
Government  has  felt  itself  unable  to  remove  this 
disgrace,  but  the  agitation  against  it  is  bearing 
fruit,  and  within  three  years  the  government  of  the 
1  Dennis,  J.  S.,  op.  «*.,  Vol.  II,  p.  145. 


1 88    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

progressive  native  state  of  Mysore,  in  South  India, 
has  prohibited  the  performance  of  the  ceremony  of 
dedication  to  such  a  life  in  any  temple  within  the 
control  of  the  government.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
this  is  but  the  beginning  of  an  earnest  movement 
upon  the  part  of  native  rulers  to  end  this  sacrifice 
of  low-caste  Hindu  girls  to  lives  of  shame.  Then, 
perhaps,  the  British  Government  will  dare  to  take 
similar  action.  Already,  at  the  last  session  of  the 
Supreme  Legislative  Council,  one  of  the  Indian 
members  introduced  some  drastic  bills  dealing  with 
this  whole  question.  Thus,  a  new  day  is  dawning 
in  India  and  it  can  be  traced  to  the  influence  of  the 
Christian  thought  of  the  West,  which  has  revealed 
to  the  leaders  of  India  the  real  character  of  their 
age-old  customs. 

The  whole  ethical  atmosphere  of  Africa  and  Asia 
is  being  purified,  and  the  time  will  come  when  the 
ethical  standards  of  Christ  will  prevail. 


PEOGEESS  IN  SOCIAL  EECONSTEUCTIOST 

SOCIAL  organization  is  the  stereotyping  of 
the  adjustments  of  men  to  their  environment; 
it  is  the  embodiment  of  the  experiences  and 
ideals  of  a  people.  For  this  reason  it  is  natural  that 
the  increase  in  intelligence  and  in  industrial  effi- 
ciency, and  the  raising  of  the  ethical  standards, 
which  have  been  outlined,  should  already  have 
resulted  in  changes  in  social  organization. 

While  the  social  organization  in  the  different 
lands  of  Africa  and  Asia  varies  widely,  yet  it  is 
uniform  in  one  respect,  that  until  very  recently,  at 
least,  the  individual  has  counted  for  comparatively 
little.  The  unit  has  been  the  family,  the  tribe,  the 
clan,  the  guild,  the  caste,  or  the  feudal  lord  with 
his  retainers.  While  in  some  instances  the  man  of 
ability  might  rise,  and  while  great  influence  at- 
tached to  certain  positions,  social,  political,  or  re- 
ligious, yet  the  ordinary  individual  counted  for 
very  little.  In  the  civil  societies  which  have  devel- 
oped in  the  West,  the  government  deals  directly 
with  the  individual,  who  is  responsible  for  his  own 
deeds  and  who  is  more  or  less  free  to  change  his 
station  in  life  in  accordance  with  an  agreement  or 
contract  mutually  satisfactory  to  all  concerned. 

189 


190    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

"Not  so  in  the  East.  Here  the  individual  has  been 
born  into  his  station  in  life,  and  he  has  had  his 
standing,  not  as  an  individual,  but  as  a  member  of 
a  group.  He  has  not  been  accustomed  to  inde- 
pendent action  or  even  to  independent  thinking. 
He  has  thought  and  acted  as  his  ancestors  had 
thought  and  acted  for  generations.  He  has  been 
responsible  primarily  to  the  head  of  that  social 
group  to  which  he  belonged,  and  that  group 
might  be  held  responsible  for  its  members. 

This  description  is  not  everywhere  applicable  in 
all  its  details,  but,  in  general,  it  may  be  said  that 
individuality  and  personal  responsibility  were  little 
encouraged  by  any  Oriental  country,  and  that  indi- 
viduals were  accustomed  to  act,  not  as  units,  but 
only  with  others.  The  nearest  to  an  exception  was 
China,  where  the  essential  democracy  of  its  local 
communities  and  its  civil  service  system  made  it 
possible  for  a  man  of  ability  to  work  his  way  up  to 
the  top ;  but  even  he  could  do  this  only  with  the 
permission  and  the  assistance  of  his  family,  to 
whose  authority  he  was  subject.  Westerners  some- 
times wonder  why  it  is  that  progress  is  slow  in 
certain  quarters,  and  why  it  is  so  hard  for  the 
individual  who  is  intellectually  convinced  of  the 
truth  of  Christianity  to  break  with  the  past  and 
come  out  as  an  avowed  Christian.  The  explana- 
tion lies  largely  in  this  characteristic  of  the  social 
organization,  under  which  he  has  been  brought  up. 
It  has  discouraged  the  development  of  individual 
independence  and  initiative  and  has  thus  made  it 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       191 

difficult  for  the  reformer  to  stand  out  against  the 
members  of  his  own  social  group. 

The  outstanding  feature  of  the  old  social  organ- 
ization of  India  is  caste  ;  of  Japan,  feudalism ;  and 
of  China,  a  combination  of  absolutism  or  theocracy 
with  democracy,  which  had  for  its  basis  the  family 
or  clan. 

For  the  mass  of  the  people  of  India,  caste  is 
synonymous  with  their  entire  social  organization 
and  even  with  their  religion  in  its  social  aspects. 
Hinduism  and  caste  are  almost  interchangeable 
terms.  To  be  sure,  the  caste  spirit  is  not  confined 
to  India.  The  class  spirit  is  akin  to  caste.  Make 
the  class  an  absolutely  closed  body  without  inter- 
marriage or  interdining  with  other  classes  ;  make 
the  membership  a  matter  of  heredity ;  buttress  it 
with  the  sanctions  of  religion  ;  and  the  result  would 
practically  be  the  caste  system  as  it  has  been  de- 
veloped in  India.  Men  everywhere  like  to  form 
themselves  into  groups,  among  whom  there  is  a  con- 
sciousness of  likeness,  and  to  develop  this  likeness 
both  positively,  by  cementing  the  union  among  the 
members,  and  negative^,  by  emphasizing  the  dif- 
ferences between  them  and  others.  In  the  older 
days,  especially,  there  was  a  very  strong  profes- 
sional feeling,  and  an  instance  of  something  very 
akin  to  caste  survives,  for  example,  in  the  refusal 
of  an  English  club  to  admit  a  worthy  gentleman  to 
membership  because  his  family  had  been  "  in  trade." 
The  attitude  of  superiority  Americans  tend  to  take 


192    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

towards  the  immigrant  and  the  feeling  that  they 
are  of  a  finer  stuff  than  he  are  other  evidences  of 
a  spirit  which  is  common  among  mankind,  and 
which  has  been  worked  out  to  its  logical  conclusion 
by  the  Hindu. 

According  to  the  Hindu  tradition,  all  the  mem- 
bers of  their  society  fall  into  four  castes : '  the 
Brahman,  or  priestly  class ;  the  Kshatriyas,  or  war- 
rior class ;  the  Vaishyas,  or  agricultural  class  ;  and 
the  Sudras,  or  servile  class.  The  first  is  said  to 
have  come  from  the  mouth  of  Brahma,  the  second 
from  his  arms,  the  third  from  his  thighs,  and  the 
fourth  from  his  feet.  Other  castes  originated  from 
intermarriage  between  these.  Another  theory, 
equally  untenable,  is  that  the  system  was  devised 
by  the  Brahmans  for  the  purpose  of  retaining  their 
control  over  the  rest  of  the  people,  in  accordance 
with  the  rule,  divide  and  conquer.  This  purpose 
may  have  been  active  at  some  times,  but  it  is  not 
sufficient  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  system. 

The  present  caste  system  is  most  complex.  There 
are  more  than  three  thousand  divisions,  each  of 
which  is  an  independent  community.  The  average 
membership  is  but  80,000.  Such  an  organization  is 
too  complicated  to  have  its  origin  and  growth  at- 
tributed to  any  one  cause.  In  general,  it  may  be 
said  that  caste  is  functional  and  racial  in  its  essence 
and  origin.  When  the  Aryan  tribes  entered  and 
conquered  India,  they  needed  different  classes  to 

lVid.    Bhattacharya,    J.    N.,    "Hindu    Castes 
Chintamani,  C.  Y.,  "  Indian  Social  Reform." 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       193 

perform  different  functions.  They  had  to  have 
priests  and  civil  rulers,  and  an  agricultural  popula- 
tion to  support  the  other  two.  They  needed  sol- 
diers and  scholars,  and  while  the  inducements  to 
these  pursuits  are  slight  in  an  agricultural  commu- 
nity, they  were  secured,  it  is  suggested  by  an  In- 
dian student  of  caste,  by  assigning  to  those  who 
thus  served  the  people  a  position  of  high  honour. 
Just  as  in  other  parts  of  the  world  social  organiza- 
tion and  even  civilization  have  been  greatly  de- 
veloped after  the  conquest  and  subjugation  of  other 
less  vigorous  peoples,  so  it  was  in  India.  There  is 
little  doubt  that  the  Sudras,  or  servile  class,  are 
the  descendants  of  aboriginal  tribes,  which  were 
conquered  and  forced  to  serve  the  Aryan  conquer- 
ors. Whatever  its  origin,  its  later  development  has 
had  at  least  five  sources : 

1.  Kace.  India  is  a  congeries  of  races.  No 
fewer  than  seven  distinct  types  of  races  were  dis- 
tinguished by  the  census  of  1901,  and  the  number 
of  languages  in  use  is  147.  The  question  of  unify- 
ing such  a  heterogeneous  population  w-ould  tax  a 
statesman  of  to-day.  The  Hindu  solved  it  by  re- 
garding these  miscellaneous  peoples  as  castes,  and 
assigning  to  each  its  place  in  society.  This  process 
has  gone  on  until  very  recent  times.  In  fact,  it  is 
still  proceeding  here  and  there.  Aboriginal  tribes, 
which  have  remained  in  isolated  spots  outside  of 
the  social  organization,  are  being  admitted  to  a 
definite  position  in  Indian  society  as  castes. 

2.  Locality.     When   sections  of  a  caste  have 


194    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

migrated  to  another  region,  the  bond  between  them 
and  the  main  body  has  gradually  weakened  and 
they  have  become  independent  castes. 

3.  Trade.  In  one  aspect,  especially  to-day,  the 
caste  is  the  Indian  trade-union.  As  new  occupa- 
tions are  taken  up  by  the  members  of  a  caste,  who 
have  lost  their  former  work  or  who  wish  to  improve 
their  condition,  these  men  gradually  come  to  feel 
that  their  interests  are  different  from  those  of  their 
former  fellow  caste-men,  and,  with  the  cessation  of 
intermarriage  and  dining,  the  new  trade  becomes  a 
new  caste.     This  process  is  going  on  to-day. 

4.  The  elevation  or  degradation  of  a  section  of 
a  caste.  Some  sections  of  castes  have,  by  sheer 
force,  pushed  themselves  up  in  the  social  scale. 
Others  have  for  some  reason  been  degraded,  so  that 
the  other  members  of  the  caste  regard  them  as  un- 
worthy of  treatment  as  equals. 

5.  Keligion.  As  each  caste  has  its  own  relig- 
ious cultus,  when  a  new  religious  movement  arises, 
the  tendency  is  for  its  members  to  become  a  sepa- 
rate caste.  There  are  castes  to-day  whose  origin 
can  be  traced  to  a  break  with  the  Brahmanic  re- 
ligion. 

Far  more  important  than  the  origin  of  caste  are 
its  rules,  spirit,  and  social  consequences. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  caste  is  exclusiveness, 
which  covers  three  realms,  business,  hospitality, 
and  marriage.  In  the  matter  of  business,  the  re- 
strictions are  the  least  binding.  The  law  of  Manu 
permitted  persons,  when  necessary,  to  subsist  by 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       195 

occupations  belonging  to  the  lower  castes,  and  the 
members  of  the  lower  castes  might  practice  any 
profession  but  that  of  priest.  Members  of  different 
castes  may  have  business  dealings  with  one  another, 
and  the  tendency  of  education  to-day  is  to  break 
down  the  stringency  that  survives  here.  At  the 
same  time,  a  caste  of  manual  labourers  takes  the 
position  of  a  strong  trade-union  with  reference  to 
the  outsider  who  seeks  to  become  a  competitor,  but 
with  an  important  difference.  Whereas  the  "  scab  " 
labourer  can  usually  avoid  all  trouble  by  joining 
the  union,  the  Indian  labourer  cannot  change  his 
caste.  Into  it  he  was  born,  and  in  it  he  must  die, 
unless  he  becomes  a  Christian. 

There  is  greater  exclusiveness  in  the  matter  of 
hospitality  and  social  intercourse.  In  general,  no 
member  of  one  caste  will  eat  in  the  home  of  a 
member  of  another  caste,  or  partake  of  food  cooked 
by  a  member  of  a  lower  caste.  So  great  is  the  de- 
mand for  Brahmans  as  cooks  by  those  who  can 
afford  such  a  luxury,  that  in  some  large  towns  the 
words  "  Brahman"  and  "cook"  have  become  al- 
most synonymous.  In  certain  prisons  they  also 
serve  in  this  capacity.  Curiously  enough,  it  has 
been  decided  that  bottled  waters  or  crackers  put 
up  in  tin  boxes  may  be  taken  by  caste  people  with- 
out fear  of  pollution.  These  restrictions  and  the 
seclusion  of  women  seriously  limit  social  intercourse 
between  Indians  and  all  foreigners. 

The  greatest  exclusiveness  of  all  is  in  the  matter 
of  marriage.    While  it  was  not  so  in  the  earlier 


196    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

days,  yet  to-day  the  rule  is  rigidly  enforced  among 
all  orthodox  Hindus,  that  the  girl  must  marry  a 
boy  of  the  same  caste.  Their  rank  must  also  be 
equal  and  their  horoscopes  harmonious. 

The  spirit  of  caste  is  the  very  opposite  of  demo- 
cratic. At  its  centre  is  the  exaltation  of  the 
Brahman  to  the  position  of  a  deity.  The  laws  of 
Manu  declared :  "  Whatever  exists  in  the  universe 
is  all  the  property  of  the  Brahman ;  for  the  Brah- 
man is  entitled  to  all  by  his  superiority  and  emi- 
nence of  birth."  ■  No  greater  wrong  is  to  be  found 
than  that  of  killing  a  Brahman.  No  Brahman  ever 
bows  his  head  to  make  the  salutation  due  to  a 
superior,  except  to  another  Brahman.  A  Sudra 
addresses  a  Brahman  as  "  venerable  god."  The 
more  orthodox  Sudras  will  not  cross  the  shadow  of 
a  Brahman,  and  some  vow  to  eat  nothing  in  the 
morning  before  they  drink  water  in  which  the  toe 
of  a  Brahman  has  been  dipped.  The  use  of  water 
is  one  of  the  matters  most  minutely  regulated  by 
caste.  Thus,  a  high  caste  man  may  use  water 
fetched  or  touched  by  a  clean  Sudra.  Ganges 
River  water  is  not  rendered  unfit  if  brought  by  an 
unclean  Sudra.  Even  this  sacred  water,  however, 
must  be  thrown  away,  if  it  has  been  touched  by  a 
non-Hindu,  Moslem,  Christian,  or  outcaste. 

Nine-tenths  of  the  people  of  India  are  either 

Sudras    or   below   them.      Manu  prescribed  that 

servitude  is  innate  in  the  Sudra,  and,  even  if  his 

master  frees  him,  he  is  not  released  from  servitude. 

1  Murdoch,  J.,  op.  cit.,  "Caste,"  p.  16. 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       197 

The  Brahman  "  may  take  possession  of  the  goods 
of  a  Sudra  with  perfect  peace  of  mind,  for,  since 
nothing  at  all  belongs  to  this  (Sudra)  as  his  own, 
he  is  one  whose  property  may  be  taken  away  by 
his  master." '  It  was  provided  that  the  lowest 
peoples  must  live  outside  the  village,  be  deprived 
of  dishes,  wear  the  garments  of  the  dead,  eat  their 
food  in  broken  dishes,  and  constantly  wander 
about.  If  a  Brahman  talked  with  one  of  these 
outcastes,  he  had  to  be  purified.  The  same  penalty 
was  exacted  if  he  walked  on  a  road  with  such  a 
creature,  touched  one,  drank  water  from  a  well 
sunk  by  one,  or  from  a  well  which  had  been 
touched  by  the  pot  of  one  of  these  creatures.  One 
who  permitted  an  outcaste  to  live  in  his  house,  not 
knowing  him  to  be  such,  had  to  burn  his  house. 
At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  they  could 
not  cross  a  street  where  a  Brahman  lived,  and  they 
were  either  naked  or  clothed  in  hideous  rags.  On 
the  Malabar  Coast,  they  were  not  allowed  huts, 
they  could  not  walk  along  the  highroad,  or  come 
within  a  hundred  paces  of  another  caste.  If  they 
were  on  a  road  and  met  a  caste  man,  they  had  to 
utter  a  certain  cry,  and  go  a  long  way  around  to 
avoid  him.  Under  the  British  rule,  the  situation 
has  been  improved,  but  even  to-day  there  are  out. 
castes  who  have  no  rights,  who  may  not  enter 
courts  of  law,  whose  only  meat  is  carrion,  and  who 
may  never,  under  the  regime  of  caste,  rise  to  a 
plane  of  living  which  can  be  called  human. 

1  Murdoch,  J.,  op.  cit.f  "Caste,"  p.  17. 


198    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

The  penalties  for  violating  the  rules  of  caste  are 
so  severe  that  comparatively  few  are  willing  to  run 
the  risk.  The  chief  of  these  are  that  friends,  rela- 
tives, and  fellow  townsmen  refuse  all  exchange  of 
hospitality.  The  offender  cannot  obtain  brides  or 
grooms  for  his  children.  Even  his  married  daugh- 
ters cannot  visit  him  without  risk  of  being  excluded 
from  caste.  His  priest,  barber,  and  washerman 
will  not  serve  him,  although  barbers  and  washer- 
men are  less  likely  now  to  refuse  their  services. 
His  fellow  caste-men  will  not  assist  him  at  the 
funeral  of  a  member  of  his  household,  and  he  may 
even  be  excluded  from  the  public  temples. 

Perhaps  the  most  serious  aspects  of  the  caste 
system  are  the  social  results.  It  has  condemned 
the  mass  of  people  to  ignorance  and  to  a  standard 
of  living  below  what  progressive  people  accord  to 
favoured  animals.  It  ministers  to  an  overweaning 
pride  on  the  one  side,  and  to  a  sense  of  inborn 
inferiority  and  servility  upon  the  other.  It  divides 
society  into  water-tight  compartments  and  deprives 
the  members  of  society  at  large  from  having  com- 
mon interests.  It  thus  makes  unity  of  thought  and 
action  next  to  impossible.  It  encourages  utter  in- 
difference to  suffering ;  for  no  caste  person  dares 
to  help  a  stranger,  for  fear  of  pollution.  It  has 
enforced  a  closeness  of  intermarriage  that  has  had 
serious  consequences  in  physical  deterioration,  if 
not  degeneracy.  It  has  produced  a  civilization 
which  is  not  progressive,  which,  in  fact,  stands 
like  a  rock  in  the  pathway   of  progress.    Most 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       199 

serious  of  all  is  the  effect  upon  the  individual,  who 
is  held  in  the  most  rigorous  control,  and  is  not 
allowed  to  disobey  the  traditions  of  his  caste  in 
matters  of  religion,  ethics,  or  social  order. 

Social  reformers  generally  regard  caste,  in  its 
present  form,  as  the  greatest  single  obstacle  to 
progress.  The  conviction  is  common  that  it  must 
be  either  abolished  or,  at  least,  radically  modified, 
before  India  can  take  her  place  as  a  unified,  self- 
governing  member  of  the  family  of  nations.  On 
the  other  hand,  its  critics  ought  to  remember  that 
in  the  early  days  caste  probably  served  as  a  uni- 
fying force.  A  recent  writer  declares :  "  There  is 
no  doubt  that  it  is  the  main  cause  of  the  funda- 
mental stability  and  contentment  by  which  Indian 
society  has  been  braced  up  for  centuries  against 
the  shocks  of  politics  and  the  cataclysms  of  Nature. 
It  provides  every  man  with  his  place,  his  career, 
his  occupation,  his  circle  of  friends.  It  makes  him 
at  the  outset  a  member  of  a  corporate  body ;  it 
protects  him  through  life  from  the  canker  of  social 
jealousy  and  unfulfilled  aspirations ;  it  ensures  him 
companionship  and  a  sense  of  community  with 
others  in  like  case  with  himself.  The  caste  organi- 
zation is  to  the  Hindu  his  club,  his  trade-union,  his 
benefit  society,  his  philanthropic  society."  ' 

Just  as  caste  is  the  unique  element  in  the  social 
organization  in  India,  so  feudalism 2  was  the  char- 

'Low,  Sidney,  " Vision  of  India,"  p.  263.  Vid.  "Enoyo. 
Brit,"  ed.  11,  Vol.  V,  p.  465. 

2  Vid.  "Enoyc.  Brit.,"  Vol.  XV,  p.  255  et  seq. 


200    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

acteristic  of  Japanese  society  before  the  advent  of 
the  new  era.  In  the  early  historical  period,  be- 
ginning with  the  fifth  century,  there  was  a  re- 
markable tendency  to  organize  the  nation  into 
groups,  based  upon  occupation  or  function.  The 
heads  of  the  great  families  had  their  titles,  and  the 
most  renowned  of  these  leaders  administered  the 
affairs  of  state,  subject,  however,  to  the  will  of  the 
sovereign.  The  provinces  were  ruled  by  younger 
members  of  the  imperial  family,  though  they,  too, 
were  subject  to  the  Throne.  In  the  first  legislative 
epoch,  beginning  in  the  middle  of  the  seventh 
century,  attempts  were  made  to  reform  the  social 
system,  to  check  the  abuses  which  had  grown  up 
with  the  system  of  forced  labour,  by  commuting  it 
for  taxes,  to  stop  the  absorption  of  the  land  into 
great  estates,  and  to  parcel  out  the  land  into  lots 
for  each  adult.  Internecine  warfare  was  also 
checked.  These  reforms  were  short-lived,  how- 
ever, and,  by  the  adoption  of  the  Chinese  adminis- 
trative system,  the  Emperor  became  the  source,  but 
not  the  wielder,  of  power. 

This  function  was  relegated  to  a  bureaucracy  and 
a  military  class.  Soon  after  this,  the  foundations 
of  the  feudal  system  were  laid,  by  the  granting  of 
large  tracts  of  tax-free  land  to  the  noblemen,  who 
had  wrested  it  from  the  aborigines  or  had  re- 
claimed it  by  the  labour  of  serfs.  At  the  same 
time,  the  tax  laws  were  such  that  the  peasants 
moved  off  from  government  lands  and  took  up 
land  on  the  estates  of  these  nobles.     The  develop- 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       201 

ment  of  this  dual  form  of  government  and  the 
centuries  of  civil  strife,  which  continued  with  brief 
intervals  from  the  latter  half  of  the  twelfth  century 
to  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth,  firmly  fastened 
feudalism  upon  Japan.  During  the  Tokugawa  era, 
which  began  in  the  last  of  the  sixteenth  century 
and  extended  until  the  beginning  of  the  Meiji  era, 
fifty  odd  years  ago,  the  social  organization  of 
Japan  included  three  groups :  first,  the  Throne  and 
the  court  nobles ;  second,  the  military  class  or 
samurai ;  third,  the  common  people  or  Jieimin. 
The  function  of  the  Emperor  or  Mikado  was  to 
mediate  between  his  heavenly  ancestors  and  his 
subjects,  while  all  the  affairs  of  state  were  en- 
trusted to  the  Shogun  and  the  samurai.  The 
Mikado  became  what  has  been  characterized  as 
"a  sacrosanct  abstraction."  The  court  nobility, 
comprising  one  hundred  and  fifty-five  families,  were 
the  descendants  of  former  mikados.  They  ranked 
above  all  the  feudal  chiefs,  filled  the  court  offices, 
lived  lives  of  proud  poverty,  and  devoted  them- 
selves to  literature  and  art. 

Below  these  came  the  samurai,  military  families 
that  had  hereditary  revenues  and  filled  the  ad- 
ministrative posts,  which  were  mostly  hereditary. 
About  fifty-five  out  of  a  thousand  of  the  popula- 
tion belonged  to  this  class.  These  families  were 
the  retainers  for  the  holders  of  the  great  estates, 
which  formed  feudal  kingdoms  with  their  own  laws 
and  usages,  subject  to  review  by  the  Shogun's 
government.     The  produce  of  the  peasants  sup- 


202    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

ported  the  chief  and  his  retainers,  half  of  the  as- 
sessed income  going  to  them  and  the  other  half  to 
the  peasants.  The  revenue  of  the  richest  dairnyo, 
or  feudal  chief,  amounted  to  about  $2,500,000  a 
year.  In  1862,  there  were  two  hundred  and  fifty- 
five  daimyos.  The  chiefs  had  their  castles,  occupy- 
ing commanding  positions,  within  which  lived  their 
military  retainers.  The  samurai  lived  frugally 
upon  the  rations  of  rice  given  them  from  the  gran- 
aries of  their  chiefs.  They  despised  money  and  all 
devices  for  making  it.  The  right  of  wearing  the 
sword  of  a  samurai  was  to  them  the  highest  con- 
ceivable honour,  and  they  were  willing  at  any  time 
to  lay  down  life  for  their  lord  or  their  country. 
Their  word  was  inviolable.  Courage  was  to  them 
the  primary  virtue  and  stoicism  came  next.  No 
insult  to  their  honour  could  be  condoned.  Courtesy 
to  one  another  and  contempt  towards  the  com- 
moner were  their  rule.  Martial  exercises  and  book 
learning  occupied  their  attention.  Their  greatest 
fault  was  faithlessness  to  women.  The  samurai 
women  were  equal  to  their  husbands  in  courage. 

Below  these  classes  were  the  great  mass  of  the  peo- 
ple, about  fifteen-sixteenths,  known  as  the  heimin, 
or  commoners.  These  were  divided  into  three 
classes,  the  husbandmen,  the  artisans,  and  the 
traders.  The  farmer  was  honoured  and  one  who 
cultivated  his  own  estate  might  carry  one  sword  but 
never  two.  The  artisans,  with  whom  were  ranked 
the  artists,  swordsmiths,  armourers,  etc.,  were 
respected.     Many  of  them  were  permanently  in  the 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       203 

service  of  feudal  chiefs  at  fixed  salaries.  Trades- 
men stood  lowest  of  all.  Below  these,  quite  in  the 
spirit  of  Hinduism,  stood  the  eta  (defiled  folks)  and 
the  hinin  (outcastes).  The  eta  were  probably  de- 
scended from  prisoners  of  war  or  the  enslaved 
families  of  criminals.  They  tended  tombs,  disposed 
of  the  bodies  of  the  dead,  slaughtered  animals,  and 
tanned  hides.  They  were  not  permitted  to  marry, 
eat,  drink,  or  associate  with  those  of  higher  classes ; 
they  lived  in  segregated  hamlets,  and  were  governed 
by  their  own  head-men  under  three  chiefs.  Some 
of  them,  however,  were  able  to  amass  much  wealth. 
The  hinin  were  mendicants,  and  removed  and  buried 
the  corpses  of  executed  criminals.  When  the  pro- 
scription was  removed,  and  the  members  of  these 
classes  were  admitted  as  commoners  in  1871,  there 
were  237,111  eta  and  695,689  hinin. 

This  organization  of  society  was  fairly  efficient 
during  the  days  when  fighting  was  constantly  go- 
ing on,  but  during  the  centuries  of  peace,  which 
marked  the  Tokugawa  era,  it  ceased  to  serve  the 
needs  of  the  public.  The  large  hereditary  fighting 
force  maintained  by  public  funds  became  an 
anomaly.  The  agricultural  and  commercial  classes 
became  more  important  but  they  acquired  no  new 
privileges  or  rights.  The  standard  of  living  went 
up,  luxury,  the  theatre,  the  dancing  girl,  and  the 
brothel  arose,  wrestling  became  an  important  insti- 
tution, and  plutocracy  asserted  itself  against  aris- 
tocracy. At  the  same  time,  the  power  of  the  Sho- 
gun  and  of  the  feudal  chiefs  passed  into  the  hands 


204    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

of  retainers  and  subordinates,  and  the  chiefs  them- 
selves became  voluptuaries  or  dilletanti. 

A  mere  recital  of  these  facts  shows  that  this  social 
organization  was  out  of  harmony  with  Western 
ideals,  that  it  was  not  conducive  to  unity  of  action 
or  public  efficiency,  and  that  it  paid  no  regard  to 
the  interests  and  rights  of  the  majority  of  the 
people.  It  could  not  survive  after  Japan  came  into 
contact  with  Western  thought  and  Western  institu- 
tions. At  the  same  time,  one  can  see  that  in  such 
a  society  as  this  the  individual  had  little  place.  In 
every  emergency  the  question  was,  How  will  my 
experience  of  danger  or  death  affect  my  family  or 
my  nation  ?  Life,  chastity,  property  were  all  held 
subject  to  the  interests  of  the  family.  From  this 
source,  coupled  with  the  deification  of  the  Emperor, 
came  the  absolute  loyalty  to  country  and  the  desire 
to  die  for  its  upbuilding,  which  has  been  and  still 
is  characteristic  of  the  Japanese  people.  Moreover, 
these  military  ideals,  which  filtered  down  through 
society,  also  resulted  in  a  spirit  of  predatory  pa- 
triotism that  tends  to  seek  the  glory  of  Japan  with- 
out reference  to  the  interests  of  other  peoples. 
This  is  based  upon  the  belief  that  Japan  is  to  be 
regarded  as  the  leader  of  the  world  and  her  in- 
terests as  paramount. 

When  one  passes  from  Japan  to  China,  one  passes 
into  a  radically  different  political  and  social  atmos- 
phere. Here,  also,  we  find  the  idea  of  filial  piety, 
as  in  every  country  where  Confucianism  has  had 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       205 

influence.  Here,  too,  the  family  is  the  unit ;  but 
instead  of  a  feudal  organization  of  society,  we  find 
a  strange  combination  of  democracy  and  absol- 
utism. 

The  unit  of  government  in  China  is  the  listen,1 
which  consists  of  one  walled  city,  or  part  of  one, 
with  the  villages  surrounding  it,  the  boundaries  ex- 
tending until  they  reach  the  territory  of  the  con- 
tiguous Hsien.  In  the  eighteen  provinces  there  are 
1,443  Hsien,  which,  together  with  twenty-seven  in 
Manchuria,  make  1,470.  Every  Chinese  is  reg- 
istered in  his  Hsien,  and  this  registration  he  clings 
to,  no  matter  in  what  part  of  the  world  he 
lives.  Here  is  his  ancestral  home ;  here  he  passes 
his  old  age;  and  to  this  spot  his  bones  will  be 
sent  for  burial  if  he  dies  elsewhere.  He  is 
always  identified  by  his  fellow  countrymen  by 
his  listen.  The  official  head  of  this  district  may 
be  called  the  mayor.  From  his  small  salary  he 
has  to  provide  for  the  maintenance  of  his  subor- 
dinates and  superiors.  His  associates  often  hold 
their  positions  by  hereditary  right  or  custom. 
This  official  has  important  judicial  functions,  is 
the  agent  of  the  provincial  and  imperial  admin- 
istrations for  collecting  the  land  tax  and  the 
grain  tribute,  is  registrar  of  land  and  famine  com- 
missioner, and  as  such  he  is  expected  to  keep  the 
granaries  full.  He  is  responsible,  save  along  the 
Yellow  Eiver,  for  the  prevention  of  floods  and  the 

1  Morse,  H.  B.,  "  The  Trade  and  Administration  of  the  Chinese 
Empire, "  p.  46  et  seq. 


206    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

reparation  of  their  damage.  He  has  custody  of 
official  buildings,  repairs  the  roads  and  bridges, 
sees  that  schools  are  maintained,  preserves  order, 
and  is  the  guardian  of  the  morals  of  his  district. 
This  is  enough  to  tax  the  powers  of  the  most 
paternalistic  official,  one  would  think.  However, 
he  comes  into  little  contact  with  the  people,  eighty 
per  cent,  of  whom,  perhaps  ninety  per  cent.,  ex- 
perience no  evidence  of  government  pressure. 

The  people  in  China  govern  themselves  according 
to  their  customs.  These  customs  constitute  the 
common  law,  and  it  is  interpreted  and  executed  by 
themselves.  For  this  common-law  administration 
the  village  is  the  unit.  The  fathers  of  the  village, 
who  really  hold  office  with  the  approval,  if  not 
under  the  appointment,  of  the  villagers,  exercise 
this  authority.  The  official  head  of  the  village  is 
the  land  warden,  who  is  nominated  by  the  mayor 
from  the  village  elders,  but  is  dependent  upon  the 
good  will  of  his  constituents.  He  is  constable  and 
may  have  jurisdiction  over  more  than  one  small 
village.  The  criminal  law  of  China  is  national,  but 
in  civil  matters  the  custom  of  each  district  is  ob- 
served, and  the  constable,  the  mayor,  and  the  higher 
officials  have  to  fall  in  with  this,  or  else  they  are 
bound  to  get  into  trouble,  which  may  lead  to  re- 
bellion and  removal.  Even  the  governors  of  the 
provinces  are  not  absolute  masters  but  must  con- 
form to  local  usages. 

Above  the  Hsien  is  the  Fu  or  prefecture.  Of 
these  there  were  183  within  the  empire,  each  com- 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       207 

posed  of  from  two  to  six  Hsien.  There  are  certain 
officials  for  groups  of  prefectures  but  for  purposes  of 
administration  the  province  is  next  above  the  Hsien. 
These  provinces  have  occupied  a  semi-autonomous 
position.  They  are  like  satrapies  in  some  respects ; 
in  others  they  are  like  the  constituent  states  of  a 
federation ;  or  still  more  like  a  territory  of  the 
American  union,  which  has  executive  and  judicial 
officers  appointed  by  the  central  authority  and  re- 
movable at  will,  but  with  local  autonomy  for  the 
levying  of  taxes  and  administration  of  law.  To 
show  how  the  authority  filters  down  from  the 
throne  to  the  district  magistrate,  we  may  quote  a 
part  of  a  specimen  proclamation  :  "  The  magistrate 
{Hsien)  has  had  the  honour  to  receive  instructions 
from  the  prefect  (Fu),  who  cites  directions  of  the 
Taotai  (group  of  Fus),  moved  by  the  Treasurer  and 
the  Judge  (province),  recipients  of  the  commands 
of  their  excellencies  the  Viceroy  and  Governor, 
acting  "at  the  instance  of  the  Foreign  Board,  who 
has  been  honoured  with  his  Majesty's  command."  ' 
The  affairs  of  the  province  have  been  under  a  general 
board,  consisting  of  the  Viceroy,  Governor,  Treas- 
urer, Judge,  Salt  Officer,  and  Grain  Official.  The 
last  four  were  the  executive  board  of  the  provincial 
government.  These  officials  were  appointed  for  a 
three-year  term,  and,  with  the  exception  of  gov- 
ernors and  viceroys,  were  reappointed  but  once. 
No  official  ever  held  a  post  in  the  province  of  his 
birth,  and  the  officials  in  each  province  represented 
1  Morse,  H.  B.,  op.  cit,  p.  67. 


208    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

different  political  parties.  These  rules  are  now 
being  modified. 

At  the  head  of  the  empire  stood  the  Emperor, 
who  was  in  theory  an  absolute  monarch,  but  in 
practice  was  bound  by  the  unwritten  constitution, 
that  is,  by  the  customs  that  had  been  handed  down 
and  by  the  precedents  of  his  predecessors  as  defined 
in  their  edicts.  He  was  also  bound  by  the  opinions 
and  decisions  of  his  ministers.  Next  to  him  was 
the  metropolitan  administration,  one  of  whose  ob- 
jects was  the  registering  and  checking  of  the  pro- 
vincial administration.  Originally  there  were  six 
boards,  namely,  the  Boards  of  Civil  Office,  Keve- 
nue,  Ceremonies,  War,  Punishments,  and  Works. 
Each  board  had  two  presidents  and  four  vice-presi- 
dents, equally  divided  between  Manchus  and  Chi- 
nese. Under  foreign  pressure,  a  Foreign  Board 
was  organized  in  1861  and  changed  in  1901.  The 
Boards  of  Commerce  and  Education  were  added 
in  1903.  The  Court  of  Investigation,  the  Office 
of  Transmission  (dealing  with  memorials  to  the 
Throne),  the  Court  of  Kevision  (supervision  of  ad- 
ministration of  criminal  law),  and  the  old  College 
of  Literature  should  be  mentioned. 

A  few  things  stand  out  prominently  from  this 
summary  and  from  other  facts  not  mentioned : 

1.  The  provincial  autonomy,  emphasized  in 
many  cases  by  differences  in  dialect  and  even  in 
language.  This  made  unity  of  opinion  and  action 
difficult,  if  not  impossible. 

2.  The  insufficiency  of  the  salaries.     These  had 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       209 

to  be  supplemented  by  means  of  the  graft  which 
was  all  but  universal. 

3.  The  frequent  rotation  in  office.  This  made 
any  continuity  of  policy  difficult,  except  as  it  was 
secured  by  following  the  local  customs. 

4.  The  lack  of  representation  outside  of  the 
local  community. 

5.  The  general  inefficiency,  from  the  point  of 
view  of  "Western  political  theory. 

6.  The  domination  of  the  whole  system  by  the 
foreign  Manchu  dynasty. 

The  paternalistic  spirit  pervaded  this  government, 
and  this  was  due  to  the  fact  that,  after  all,  the  in- 
stitution at  the  basis  of  China  and  most  affecting 
the  individual  is  the  patriarchal  family.  Backed 
up  by  the  ancestor  worship,  the  family  is  the  real 
unit  of  Chinese  society.  And  it  is  a  family  of  a 
type  that  has  long  since  ceased  to  exist  among  the 
peoples  of  the  West.  With  us,  when  a  son  mar- 
ries, he  usually  sets  up  a  new  home.  Not  so  in 
China.  Not  only  do  the  parties  have  nothing  to 
do  with  the  selection  of  each  other,  but,  with  the 
marriage  ceremony,  the  girl  ceases  to  be  a  member 
of  her  own  family,  and  becomes  a  member  of  her 
husband's.  The  typical  Chinese  family  consists  of 
the  parents,  their  sons,  who  probably  married 
young,  their  daughters-in-law,  who  have  come  as 
servants  to  their  mother-in-law,  and  the  grand- 
children. The  daughters  have  all  married  and 
gone  to  other  homes.  They  have  no  rights  in  the 
old  family,  and  are  seen  only  occasionally.    The 


210    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

property  is  held  in  common,  though  there  may  be 
a  division  before  the  death  of  the  father.  The  fa- 
ther, and,  after  his  death,  the  mother,  may  chastise, 
sell,  or  even  kill  a  son.  A  wife  has  no  wish  that 
her  husband  is  legally  bound  to  respect.  Further 
than  this,  the  wider  family,  the  clan,  the  members 
of  which  live  together  in  villages  and  have  a  com- 
mon ancestral  temple,  can  keep  the  young  man  or 
woman  in  hand.  While  a  young  man  is  supposed 
to  become  of  age  at  sixteen,  he  is  practically  under 
the  control  of  his  father,  uncles,  and  older  brothers, 
and  when  the  average  man  comes  to  the  headship 
of  a  family,  his  powers  of  initiative  have  largely 
atrophied.  Custom  and  morals  become  identified, 
and  both  of  them  have  the  sanction  of  religion. 

China  has  enforced  corporate  responsibility. 
Any  official  was  held  accountable  for  any  offense 
within  his  jurisdiction,  whether  he  was  to  blame 
for  it  or  not,  and  whether  he  could  have  foreseen  its 
occurrence  or  not.  The  same  responsibility  ex- 
tended to  families  and  villages.  A  case  was  known 
where  a  man,  aided  by  his  wife,  flogged  his  mother. 
The  pair  were  flayed  alive ;  the  grand-uncle,  uncle, 
two  elder  brothers,  and  the  head  of  the  clan  were 
executed  ;  the  neighbours  on  either  side,  the  father 
of  the  woman,  and  the  head  representative  of  the 
literary  degree  the  man  held  were  flogged  and 
banished ;  the  prefect  and  the  district  ruler  were 
temporarily  degraded  ;  and  the  child  of  the  offenders 
was  given  another  name. 

While  the  Chinese  have  thus  lost  much  of  their 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       211 

ability  to  take  the  initiative,  they  have  developed 
cooperation  to  the  full.  In  matters  of  religion, 
trade,  amusement,  and  the  like,  they  work  to- 
gether. Societies,  secret  or  open,  are  organized  for 
every  conceivable  purpose,  for  burying  the  dead, 
for  holding  feasts,  for  making  public  improvements, 
for  any  or  for  no  purpose.  The  guild  is  the  power 
in  the  business  world.  The  system  of  markets  has 
ramifications  all  over  the  province  and  brings  each 
individual  within  reach  of  a  market  on  a  larger  or 
a  smaller  scale.  It  is  in  their  proved  ability  to  co- 
operate, in  their  inherent  respect  for  orderliness, 
and  in  their  habit  of  governing  themselves,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  customs  which  have  for  them 
all  the  sanctity  of  a  moral  law,  that  we  have  the 
promise  of  the  success  of  the  present  republic. 

This  is  a  sketch  of  the  social  organization  of  the 
three  great  peoples  of  Asia  before  the  advent  of 
Western  influence.  Within  a  generation  great  and 
radical  changes  have  taken  place. 

Caste  has  begun  to  weaken  its  hold  in  India.  Two 
provisions  of  the  British  Government  for  the  public 
welfare  have  had  much  to  do  with  this  ;  namely,  the 
building  of  railways  and  the  introduction  of  a  good 
water  supply.  The  expense  of  railway  travel  in 
India  is  very  low  and  the  people  travel  in  droves, 
from  the  Brahman  to  the  coolie.  The  railway 
carriages  are  not  built  on  the  lines  of  caste,  and  this 
promiscuous  intermingling  of  the  different  castes 
cannot  fail  to  cause  some  relaxing  of  the  stringency 


212    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

of  caste  regulations.  Then,  too,  when  persons  are 
away  from  home  and  among  strangers,  as  those  who 
travel  are,  they  naturally — at  least  in  India — tend 
to  overlook  those  minute  regulations  of  caste  which 
hamper  freedom  of  movement.  Mention  has  al- 
ready been  made  of  some  of  the  restrictions  that 
caste  imposes  upon  the  use  of  water.  In  the  old 
days,  the  different  castes  would  have  separate 
wells,  to  which  low  caste  people,  and  especially 
outcastes,  could  have  no  access.  But  the  British 
Government  does  not  permit  such  discrimination, 
and  this,  too,  tends  to  break  down  the  exclusive- 
ness.  Among  the  educated  young  men  of  India, 
these  restrictions  upon  the  use  of  food  have  lost 
their  compelling  force.  They  may  conform  among 
their  families  and  friends,  but  when  away  from 
home,  they  do  not  hesitate  to  eat  with  others,  con- 
trary to  the  rules  of  caste.  At  a  recent  Social  Con- 
gress, the  delegates  had  a  common  meal  together. 
The  remarkable  thing  about  it  was,  not  that  they 
thus  broke  the  rules  of  caste,  but  that  when  they 
returned  to  their  homes,  not  one  of  them  was  called 
to  account  by  the  heads  of  his  caste. 

In  the  old  days,  any  high  caste  Hindu  who 
crossed  the  ocean  was  ipso  facto  thrown  out  of 
caste  and  could  be  restored  only  by  a  long,  expen- 
sive, and  disgusting  process  of  purification.  To-day 
this  requirement  is  either  greatly  reduced  or  en- 
tirely waived. 

The  party  of  reformers  in  India,  who  have  come 
to  realize  the  evil  social  consequences  of  caste,  are 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       213 

seeking  earnestly  to  remove  some  of  the  worst  fea- 
tures. One  line  of  effort  is  the  attempt  to  break 
down  the  barriers  between  the  sub-eastes,  in  order 
to  reunite  the  castes  which  were  originally  one. 
This  would  prevent  the  evil  results  of  too  close  in- 
terbreeding and  at  the  same  time  broaden  the  inter- 
ests of  the  individuals.  Inter-caste  marriages  are 
by  no  means  unknown,  especially  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  reforming  Hindu  sects.  I  met  in 
northern  India  a  gentleman  who  had  been  devot- 
ing his  time  for  years  to  arranging  such  marriages. 

The  leaders  in  the  movement  for  political  prog- 
ress also  recognize  in  caste  one  of  the  obstacles  to 
the  attainment  of  their  desires.  They  see  in  the 
condition  of  the  outcastes  a  lasting  blot  upon  Indian 
society.  Some  of  them  have  openly  advised  the 
members  of  these  depressed  classes  to  become 
Christians,  as  the  only  avenue  of  escape.  Others 
deplore  the  movement  towards  Christianity  upon 
the  part  of  these  people,  and  are  summoning  their 
co-religionists  to  missionary  efforts,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  Christianization  of  these  millions,  which 
would  mean,  they  believe,  "  in  no  small  measure  the 
wiping  out  of  the  hoary  Hindu  civilization." 

Equally  important  with  this  social  movement  is 
the  political  agitation  for  a  greater  degree  of  self- 
government.  The  agitators  range  all  the  way 
from  those  who  calmly,  though  vigorously,  request 
a  greater  share  in  the  government  of  India  and  the 
removal  of  some  of  the  disabilities  from  which 
India  has  suffered,  up  to  those  who  urge  the  ex- 


214    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

pulsion  of  the  British  and  are  ready  to  use  vio- 
lence in  order  to  emphasize  their  demand.  The  de- 
mands are  equally  varied.  In  this  connection,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  as  yet  a  very  small 
fraction  of  the  population  of  India  is  in  the  slightest 
degree  affected  by  this  agitation. 

The  causes  of  the  agitation  are  too  many  to  be 
discussed  fully  here,  but  a  few  of  the  grievances 
should  receive  a  bare  mention : 

1.  Certain  disabilities  from  which  the  Indians 
have  suffered,  such  as  their  exclusion  from  some 
of  the  higher  offices. 

2.  Until  recently,  the  control  by  government 
rather  than  by  the  electorate  of  the  majority  in  the 
legislative  bodies. 

3.  Certain  fiscal  and  tariff  regulations  which 
unduly  sacrifice  India  to  British  interests. 

4.  The  attitude  of  superiority  assumed  by  many 
a  Britisher  towards  the  cultivated  and  educated 
Indian. 

5.  The  acquaintance  of  the  Indian  student  with 
the  history  and  political  philosophy  of  the  Western 
nations,  and  his  consequent  desire  to  enjoy  similar 
political  rights  and  privileges. 

6.  The  selfish  wish  to  exploit  the  country,  or  at 
least  to  hold  office.  The  educated  Indian  has  be- 
lieved himself  above  everything  but  a  position 
under  government,  in  administrative  or  educational 
work,  and  the  graduates  have  far  outnumbered  the 
positions. 

7.  The  fear  that  Hindu  institutions  are  being 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       215 

undermined,  and  the  consequent  attempt  to  expel 
the  British,  in  order  that  full  control  may  revert  to 
the  Brahmans  and  other  leaders  of  Hinduism. 

Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  justification  or  lack 
of  justification  of  these  reasons — and  I  am  both  an 
admirer  and  a  critic  of  British  rule  in  India — it 
should  be  stated  that  the  Indians  enjoy  a  far  greater 
degree  of  self-government  than  was  ever  granted 
them  under  any  former  regime,  and  that  the  British 
Government  is  moving  in  the  direction  of  satisfying 
the  legitimate  demands  of  the  people  and  perhaps 
permitting  India  to  become  a  self-governing  mem- 
ber of  the  British  Empire,  with  its  own  parlia- 
mentary institutions. 

Even  before  the  recent  reforms,  less  than  6,500 
Englishmen  were  employed  in  the  task  of  ruling 
India,  backed  up  by  less  than  80,000  British  troops. 
While  of  the  1,370  higher  positions  in  India,  those 
paying  a  salary  of  $4,000  and  more,  1,263  were 
held  by  Europeans,  fifteen  by  Eurasians,  and  ninety- 
two  by  natives  of  India  ;  in  the  lower  appointments, 
paying  from  $4,000  down  to  $300  a  year,  there 
were  but  5,205  Europeans,  5,420  Eurasians,  and 
16,283  natives.1 

As  early  as  1850,2  provision  was  made  for  con- 
sultative committees  in  towns.  In  1870,  local  com- 
mittees were  given  control  over  the  funds  for  local 
improvements.  In  1882,  municipal  committees  and 
local  boards  were  provided  for  ;  the  members  were 
to  be  elected  ;  and  the  non-official  members  were 

,<lEnoyo.  Brit.,"  Vol.  XIV,  p.  386.  2 Ibid. 


216    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

to  be  in  the  majority.  In  1910-1911 '  there  were 
715  municipalities  which  cared  for  all  local  interests, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  provincial  government. 
According  to  the  system,  the  number  of  official 
appointed  members  and  of  elected  members  varies 
according  to  local  conditions.  A  community  that 
behaves  itself  is  granted  a  larger  proportion  of 
elected  members,  and  the  choice  by  these  members 
of  a  mayor.  On  the  other  hand,  as  a  punishment 
for  wrong-doing,  the  right  to  select  the  mayor  may 
be  taken  away  and  the  majority  of  the  council 
be  appointed.  Thus,  a  premium  is  put  upon  good 
behaviour,  and  the  people  have  an  inducement  to 
develop  their  capacity  for  sane  self-government. 

At  the  head  of  the  government  in  India  is  the 
Governor-General,  or  Viceroy,  together  with  the 
Executive  Council  appointed  by  the  Crown.  In 
1909,  a  Hindu  barrister  was  for  the  first  time 
appointed  to  this  body,  the  members  of  which  had 
hitherto  been  exclusively  British.  The  supreme 
legislative  body  is  this  same  Council,  but  with 
additions.  Previous  to  1909,  the  additional  mem- 
bers numbered  sixteen,  all  of  whom  were  nominated 
by  the  Viceroy  to  represent  different  sections  of 
the  population.  Now,  however,  the  legislative 
members  have  been  increased  to  sixty-one  and, 
what  is  of  greater  importance,  a  minority  of  the 
members,  twenty-five  in  number,  are  elected,  directly 
or  indirectly,  by  the  people  of  India.  The  nom- 
inated members  still  comprise  the  majority,  thirty- 

1U  Statesman's  Year  Book,  1913,"  p.  122. 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       217 

five,  but  of  these  not  more  than  twenty-eight  may 
be  officials  and  they  are  not  necessarily  British.  In 
the  provincial  legislative  bodies  the  elected  members 
are  in  the  majority,  ranging  from  thirteen  or  four- 
teen in  Bengal  to  three  in  Burma,  exclusive  of  the 
head  of  the  province.1  The  purpose  of  preserving 
so  large  a  number  of  nominated  members  is  to  make 
sure  that  the  councils  contain  experts  and  the  rep- 
resentatives of  special  interests  and  of  minorities. 
Already,  in  the  supreme  legislative  council,  an 
Indian  member  has  brought  up  the  matter  of  free 
and  compulsory  elementary  education,  and  it  is 
certain  that  in  the  coming  days  the  Indian  people 
will  constantly  grow  in  ability  and  power  to  control 
their  own  affairs. 

In  India,  the  process  of  social  reconstruction  is 
hardly  more  than  well  begun.  On  the  other  hand, 
Japan  is  a  nation  which  has  entirely  reconstituted 
itself.  It  has  organized  its  government  and  society 
along  lines  which  are  designed  to  secure  increased 
efficiency  and  also  greater  opportunity  for  the  in- 
dividual. The  story 2  of  the  process  by  which  Japan 
emerged  from  feudalism  into  constitutionalism  is 
fascinating,  especially  as  one  sees  the  willingness 
with  which  the  samurai,  who  had  been  the  back- 
bone of  old  Japan,  gave  up  their  old  privileges  and, 
out  of  loyalty  to  Emperor  and  country,  adapted 
themselves  to  the  new  regime.     At  first,  the  leaders 

1  "Encyc.  Brit.,"  Vol.  XIV,  p.  385. 
*lbid.,  Vol.  XV,  p.  266  et  seq. 


218    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

of  the  revolution  desired  merely  to  unify  the  nation. 
But  this  could  not  be  done,  it  came  to  be  realized, 
unless  the  feudatories  were  deprived  of  their  local 
autonomy  and  of  their  control  of  local  finances.  In 
1871,  the  four  most  powerful  feudal  chiefs  in  the 
south,  those  of  Satsuma,  Choshu,  Tosa,  and  Hizen, 
surrendered  their  fiefs  to  the  Emperor.  While  they 
may  not  have  realized  what  it  would  cost  them, 
only  seventeen  of  the  more  than  two  hundred  and 
fifty  feudatories  hesitated  to  follow  this  example. 
The  motives  behind  this  step  may  have  been  mixed, 
but  undoubtedly  the  chief  motive  was  that  of  loyalty 
to  the  Throne.  Any  one  who  had  hesitated  for 
selfish  reasons  would  have  seemed  to  forfeit  his 
right  to  be  called  a  samurai.  Especially  after  this 
change,  the  position  of  the  samurai  became  anoma- 
lous, and  their  pensions,  amounting  to  about  $10,- 
000,000  a  year,  became  too  great  a  burden  upon 
the  taxpayers.  In  1873,  they  were  asked  to  com- 
mute their  pensions  and  lay  aside  their  swords,  the 
most  cherished  privilege  they  possessed.  The  terms 
were  very  unfavourable,  but  many  of  them  promptly 
complied,  and  stepped  out  into  life  as  ordinary  citi- 
zens, to  make  their  own  way. 

Three  years  later,  this  change  was  made  compul- 
sory. The  samurai  had  been  trained  to  despise 
money  and  the  financial  measure  evoked  no  com- 
plaint. The  extreme  conservatives,  however, 
thought  that  the  abolition  of  the  sword- wearing 
was  too  much  to  demand.  Armed  protests  ensued, 
and  finally,  in  1877,  a  rebellion  broke  out  in  the 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       2 1 9 

south.  One  of  the  most  portentous  changes  in  the 
reconstruction  of  Japan  had  been  the  depriving  of 
the  old  military  class  of  its  monopoly  of  the  army 
and  the  navy.  In  this  most  bloody  rebellion,  in 
which  the  killed  and  wounded  aggregated  one- third 
of  the  whole  force  engaged,  on  the  one  side  were 
the  old  soldiers,  trained  to  h'ght  for  generations ; 
on  the  other  side  was  the  new  army,  consisting  of 
recruits  drawn  from  every  class  of  the  nation.  The 
result  proved  the  fighting  quality  of  the  people, 
and  established  the  principle  that  the  days  of  the 
samurai  had  passed  forever.  They  have  come  to 
their  own,  however,  as  leaders  in  the  new  Japan, 
and  even  in  the  Christian  Church. 

The  government  of  Japan  l  is  an  interesting  com- 
bination of  centralization  and  local  autonomy.  At 
the  head  stands  the  Emperor,  with  a  cabinet  subject 
to  him  rather  than  to  the  majority  in  the  House  of 
Kepresentatives.  The  Imperial  Diet  is  composed 
of  two  houses,  the  House  of  Peers  and  the  House 
of  Kepresentatives,  each  being  vested  with  the 
same  legislative  powers.  The  upper  house  is  com- 
posed of  hereditary  princes  and  marquises,  repre- 
sentatives chosen  by  the  lower  orders  of  nobility 
in  the  ratio  of  one  member  to  every  five  peers  of 
each  class,  life  members  nominated  by  the  Emperor 
for  distinguished  services  or  for  erudition,  and  rep- 
resentatives, one  from  each  prefecture,  elected  by 
the  highest  taxpayers  therein.  The  last  two  classes 
may  never  exceed  the  former.     In  1910  the  house 

1  "  Ency.  Brit.,"  Vol.  XV,  202  el  *eq. 


220    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

contained  207  titled  members  and  164  non-titled. 
The  lower  house  is  composed  of  379  members,  a 
fixed  number  being  elected  by  the  male  electors 
of  each  district.  The  urban  population  elects  76, 
the  rural  303,  but  the  latter  includes  all  the  pop- 
ulation of  Japan  outside  of  the  three  large  cities  of 
Tokyo,  Kyoto,  and  Osaka.1 

Japan  proper  is  divided  into  three  urban  and 
forty-three  rural  prefectures.  The  latter  are  sub- 
divided into. counties,  and  these  into  towns  and  vil- 
lages. In  general,  in  each  of  these  subdivisions 
there  is  a  chief  officer,  the  governor  in  the  prefec- 
ture, the  head-man  in  the  sub-prefecture  or  county, 
the  mayor  in  the  municipality,  and  the  chief  magis- 
trate or  head-man  in  the  town  or  village.  These 
officials  are  all  appointed  by  the  central  administra- 
tion. Associated  with  each  of  these  is  an  elected 
body,  or  assembly,  which  is  chosen  by  the  electors, 
who  number  a  little  more  than  2,000,000.  By  a 
simple  device  of  classifying  the  electors,  those  who 
pay  taxes  on  one-third  or  one-half  of  the  property 
in  a  district  elect  the  same  proportion  of  the  as- 
sembly. From  this  franchise  are  excluded  such 
persons  as  local  salaried  officials,  judicial  officials, 
and  any  contractor  for  public  works  or  public  sup- 
plies. The  chief  function  of  these  local  assemblies 
relates  to  local  finance,  subject  in  certain  instances 
to  the  approval  of  officers  in  the  central  administra- 
tion. In  connection  with  all  the  larger  administra- 
tive districts,  there  is  also  a  council,  of  which  the 
1  "  Japan  Year  Book,  1912,"  p.  497  et»eq. 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction        221 

chief  official  is  the  president,  and  which  has  certain 
executive  powers,  acts  for  the  assembly  in  cases  of 
emergency,  when  the  latter  is  not  in  session,  and 
decides  matters  referred  to  it  by  the  assembly. 
The  effect  of  this  system  has  been  to  give  the 
people  a  good  training  in  self-government.  In 
fact,  they  had  been  somewhat  prepared  for  this 
even  in  the  days  of  feudalism,  when  the  common 
people  were  divided  into  groups  of  five  families 
each,  which  were  held  jointly  liable  for  any  offense 
committed  by  one  of  their  members. 

The  Japanese  Government  has  also  energetically 
taken  up  the  task  of  developing  a  country  which 
had  not  been  given  to  industry  into  a  great  indus- 
trial and  commercial  nation.  By  subsidies  and  by 
public  ownership,  it  has  sought  to  extend  the  in- 
fluence of  the  empire  throughout  the  Orient  and 
the  Occident.  It  has  had  to  meet  problems  of 
sanitation,  housing,  and  the  like,  which  had  never 
been  dreamed  of  in  the  older  days.  The  aim  has 
been  to  make  Japan  superior  to  all  other  nations  in 
every  line,  and  the  people  believe  that  already  they 
have  done  this  in  many  respects. 

Within  a  little  more  than  a  generation,  Japan 
has  thus  passed  from  feudalism  into  a  social  organ- 
ization which  Europe  reached  only  after  centuries 
of  struggle,  and  it  is  facing  the  future  with  confi- 
dent optimism.  At  the  same  time,  the  Japanese 
people  have  still  preserved  the  old  virtues  which 
glorified  their  past,  such  as  their  intense  patriotism 
and  their  feeling  of  solidarity  in  family  and  nation. 


222    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

Individualism  is  developing  but  there  is  little  pros- 
pect that  it  will  ever  be  carried  to  the  extreme 
which  is  found  in  the  West. 

In  all  this  story  of  progress,  Christianity  has 
played  an  honourable  part.  Men  like  Drs.  Hepburn, 
Yerbeck,  and  S.  E.  Brown,  and  Captain  Janes  in- 
fluenced the  leaders  of  Japan  through  their  teach- 
ing and  their  lives.  Count  Okuma  declared  in 
1909,  at  the  semi-centennial  of  Christian  missions 
in  Japan,  "  Though  I  am  not  a  Christian,  I  have  in- 
directly received  an  immense  influence  from  Chris- 
tianity. .  .  .  The  first  missionary  I  ever  met 
was  Dr.  Yerbeck,  whom  I  first  saw  in  1864.  He 
was  my  English  teacher,  and  ...  his  Chris- 
tian conduct  was  a  constant  example.  ...  It 
was  the  life  of  Dr.  Yerbeck  that  influenced  me 
more  than  his  teaching."  '  The  Japanese  Chris- 
tians likewise,  from  Yokoi,  down  through  Neesima, 
to  Watanabe,  Ishii,  and  Mtobe,  have  played  their 
part  well.  In  public  life  and  in  the  army  and 
navy,  they  have  shown  that  Christianity  can  in- 
crease the  efficiency  and  the  loyalty  of  the  Japa- 
nese patriot.  The  leaders  of  the  Christian  church, 
likewise,  have  been  and  still  are  influencing  the 
social  as  well  as  the  public  life  of  the  nation. 
Preachers  who  attract,  Sunday  after  Sunday,  the 
students  in  the  universities  and  public  schools,  and 
preach  to  them  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  and 
their  applications  to  the  needs  of  Japanese  life  to- 
day, are  a  social  force  in  the  new  Japan. 

1  "  Christian  Movement  in  Japan,  1910,"  p.  59. 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       223 

Japan  has  naturally  moved  from  feudalism  into 
a  constitutional  monarchy,  with  an  aristocratic  and 
property  basis.  China  has  moved  from  a  combina- 
tion of  absolutism  and  democracy  into  what  was 
supposed  to  be  a  constitutional  monarchy  but  which 
turns  out  to  be  a  republic.  The  steps  by  which 
China  came  to  the  successful  termination  of  her 
revolution  were  very  rapid.  It  was  not  until  1905 
that  a  commission  was  appointed  to  study  the  forms 
of  government  in  other  countries.  This  was  fol- 
lowed, a  year  later,  by  the  issuing  of  an  imperial 
edict,  September  1,  1906,  which  foreshadowed  the 
inauguration  of  a  parliamentary  system  for  the 
empire.  The  next  year,  1907,  an  advisory  council 
was  established  as  a  first  stepping-stone  towards  a 
representative  government.  On  August  27,  1908, 
an  edict  announced  that  Parliament  would  be 
convoked  nine  years  from  that  date,  in  1917. 
Provincial  assemblies  met  in  October,  1909,  and  in 
May,  1910,  the  names  of  the  National  Assembly  or 
Senate  were  announced,  and  this  body  met  for 
the  first  time  on  October  2,  1910.  At  once  this 
Assembly  began  to  assert  for  itself  prerogatives 
which  were  not  within  the  purview  of  the  Crown 
when  it  issued  the  plan  of  constitutional  develop- 
ment. The  agitation  within  and  without  the 
Assembly  sought  two  ends,  first,  the  immediate 
calling  of  the  real  parliament,  and,  secondly,  the 
organization  of  a  responsible  cabinet  to  advise  the 
Crown,  and  to  carry  out  the  wishes  of  the  people, 
that  is,  of  the  Assembly. 


224    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

The  pressure  became  so  great  that  the  Prince 
Regent  promised  a  cabinet  within  a  year  and  a 
parliament  at  the  end  of  three  years,  or  four  years 
before  the  time  originally  agreed  upon.  Even  this 
did  not  satisfy  the  radical  party,  and,  before  the 
National  Assembly  gathered  for  its  second  session, 
in  the  autumn  of  1911,  the  rebellion  was  in  full 
swing,  and  it  culminated  in  the  issue  of  the  edict 
of  abdication,  on  February  12,  1912.1  No  one 
knows  what  the  form  of  government  will  ultimately 
be,  but  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  reforms  which 
the  old  dynasty  was  willing  to  concede.  At  the 
same  time,  this  statement  will  explain  why  the 
radicals,  who  had  learned  in  infancy  some  of  the 
principles  of  democracy,  and  had  later  seen  how 
democratic  institutions  had  made  the  Western 
nations  strong,  were  not  satisfied  with  what  the 
Throne  had  conceded. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  new  Chinese  ad- 
ministration was  to  be  somewhat  along  the  lines  of 
the  Japanese  constitution.  The  whole  purpose  of 
the  new  constitution  was  to  consolidate  the  empire 
and  to  deprive  the  provinces  of  the  virtual  autonomy 
which  they  had  enjoyed.  This  was  to  be  accom- 
plished by  centralizing  the  administration,  nationaliz- 
ing finance,  justice,  and  education,  and  bringing  the 
representatives  of  the  people  into  an  advisory  posi- 
tion. It  was  the  intention  of  the  Throne,  not  to 
transfer  its  authority  to  the  people,  but  to  retain 

1  "China  Mission  Year  Book,  1910,"  p.  23  et  seq.;  Ibid., 
1911,  p.  30  et  seq. 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       225 

within  its  own  control  the  rights  of  sovereignty. 
At  the  same  time,  it  wished  to  silence  the  demand 
of  the  people  for  a  greater  measure  of  self-govern- 
ment. Thus,  the  Emperor  was  to  be  the  source 
of  all  legislative,  administrative,  and  judicial  ac- 
tion, the  legislative  bodies  merely  giving  their 
advice. 

The  constitution  provided  four  classes  of  repre- 
sentative assemblies.  At  the  head,  the  National 
Assembly  was  to  contain  in  germ  the  two  houses 
of  the  future  parliament.  One-half  of  the  members 
were  practically  nominated  by  the  Emperor,  repre- 
senting the  imperial  princes,  the  peerage,  the  im- 
perial clansmen  and  elder  statesmen,  representatives 
of  the  administrative  boards,  distinguished  scholars, 
and  the  large  land  owners  in  the  provinces.  The 
other  half  was  composed  of  representatives  from 
the  provincial  assemblies.  After  discussion,  the  As- 
sembly could  memorialize  the  Throne  but  it  could 
not  enact  laws  that  the  Emperor  had  to  sign.  Each 
province  was  to  elect  a  council  with  functions 
within  the  province  similar  to  those  of  the  National 
Assembly  for  the  empire.  One-fifth  of  the  mem- 
bers were  to  constitute  a  committee,  to  act  as  the 
adviser  of  the  governor  when  the  council  was  not 
in  session.  The  members  were  to  be  indirectly 
chosen  by  the  people,  the  actual  election  being  by 
an  electoral  college  in  each  Fu  or  prefecture,  which, 
in  turn,  was  chosen  directly  by  the  voters  in  all  the 
Hsien.  Below  this  was  the  local  government,  of  a 
higher  or  lower  grade,  for  the  Hsien,  and  for  each 


226    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

city,  market  town,  and  village  within  the  district. 
Here  the  people  were  given  a  share  in  administra- 
tion as  well  as  in  legislation,  and  one  of  the  most 
interesting  features  was  that  in  villages  with  a  popu- 
lation of  less  than  twenty -five  hundred,  all  the  voters 
were  to  constitute  the  village  assembly,  quite  in  the 
spirit  of  the  New  England  town  meeting,  which 
has  been  regarded  as  the  best  instance  of  pure 
democracy  in  all  the  world.1 

Such  were  some  of  the  lines  along  which  China 
was  moving  when  its  leaders  decided  that  the  time 
had  come  for  the  most  populous  nation  in  the 
eastern  hemisphere  to  follow  the  example  of  the 
most  populous  nation  in  the  western  hemisphere, 
and  establish  republican  institutions. 

The  provisional  constitution  of  China  is  modelled 
upon  those  of  the  Western  democratic  states.  The 
bill  of  rights  protects  the  people  against  arbitrary 
arrest  and  the  illegal  search  of  their  residences.  It 
guarantees  such  rights  as  those  of  holding  property, 
free  discussion,  secrecy  of  letters,  and  freedom  of 
movement  and  religion.  It  gives  the  rights  of 
petition,  of  appeal  against  infringement  by  officials, 
and  of  being  examined  to  become  officials.  Only 
by  due  process  of  law  can  the  rights  be  suspended 
and  then  only  in  the  public  interest  or  for  the 
maintenance  of  order  and  peace. 

The  National  Assembly  is  representative  of  the 
provinces  and  outlying  regions.  It  has  the  usual 
powers  and  its  members  are  free  from  arrest  during 
1  "  China  Mission  Year  Book,  1911,"  p.  49  et  seq. 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       227 

the  sessions,  except  for  flagrant  offenses  or  during 
times  of  internal  disturbance  or  foreign  invasion. 

The  Provisional  President  commands  the  military 
and  naval  forces,  appoints  and  dismisses  civil  and 
military  officials,  and  with  the  minister  of  justice 
appoints  all  judges,  who  are  to  be  free  from  inter- 
ference by  higher  officials.1 

These  are  some  of  the  salient  features  of  the  pro- 
visional constitution  under  which  China  is  supposed 
to  be  governed,  pending  the  adoption  of  the  real 
constitution  by  the  National  Convention. 

In  addition  to  the  matters  of  political  reconstruc- 
tion, the  Chinese  people,  through  their  government, 
have  been  setting  their  house  in  order  in  other 
respects  also.  The  judicial  system  has  been  so 
corrupt  and  inefficient  that  it  was  impossible  to 
demand  that  the  Western  nations  give  up  their 
rights  of  extra-territoriality.  During  the  closing 
days  of  the  first  session  of  the  National  Assembly 
of  1910,  the  new  penal  code  was  discussed,  and  the 
Assembly  sanctioned  its  adoption. 

New  courts  have  been  established  in  certain 
provinces,  and  trial  by  jury  has  been  introduced, 
though  not  with  entirely  satisfactory  results.  The 
Manchu  Government  issued  edicts  abolishing  tor- 
ture, but  it  is  not  certain  that  justice  can  yet  be  se- 
cured in  China  without  the  use  of  the  bamboo  to 
extort  confession.  The  prisons  of  China  have  begun 
to  be  reformed.  China  was  represented  at  the  last 
International  Congress  on  Prison  Eeform  by  dele- 

1  "China  Mission  Year  Book,  1912,"  Appendix,  p,  24  et  aeq. 


228    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

gates  who  subsequently  made  a  study  of  European 
prisons.  As  long  ago  as  1908,  I  was  privileged  to 
visit  in  Tientsin  and  Paotingfu  what  might  almost 
be  called  model  prisons,  in  which  the  prisoners  were 
well  cared  for  under  good  sanitary  conditions,  were 
given  instruction,  and  were  taught  useful  arts. 
This  movement  is  spreading  wherever  want  of  will 
and  of  money  do  not  prevent,  and  a  model  prison 
has  been  discovered  even  in  distant  Yunnan. 

The  question  of  economy  and  that  of  securing  a 
sound  and  national,  not  provincial,  currency,  have 
also  been  taxing  the  ingenuity  of  Chinese  states- 
men, but  here  the  profits  from  graft  and  provincial 
jealousies  have  been  serious  obstacles  to  overcome. 

What  the  outcome  of  this  experiment  will  be,  no 
one  can  foretell,  but  it  is  to  be  noted  in  passing  that 
in  this  whole  movement  Christian  men  have  been 
prominent.  Many  non-Christian  and  unworthy 
men  have  come  to  the  front,  but  many  of  the  best 
leaders  have  been  men  actuated  by  Christian  prin- 
ciples. In  one  of  the  earlier  gatherings  in  Nan- 
king, it  was  discovered,  so  it  was  reported,  that 
three-fourths  were  Christians.  The  leader  in 
Taiku,  Shansi,  who  was  made  chief  of  police  and 
who  prevented  the  city  from  being  sacked  by 
troops,  was  the  principal  of  a  Christian  school. 
The  need  of  China  to-day  is  for  more  men  who  have 
Christian  principles  and  who  yet  have  sanity  and 
balance  and  a  grasp  of  the  difficulties  inherent  in 
all  great  political  reconstructions.  Through  the 
schools  maintained  by  American  missionaries  and 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       229 

through  the  record  of  the  United  States,  China 
has  come  to  look  to  us  for  its  inspiration  as  it  seeks 
to  reconstruct  its  social  organization. 

One  of  the  most  recent  and,  until  the  revolution 
in  China,  most  surprising  overturns  resulting  in  a 
political  development  along  Western  lines,  was  the 
revolution  in  Turkey  in  1908.  Up  to  that  time, 
Turkey  had  been  an  autocracy.  The  Sultan, 
through  the  Grand  Vizier,  or  head  of  the  temporal 
government,  and  the  Sheik  ul  Islam,  the  head  of 
the  ecclesiastical  power,  exercised  all  legislative 
and  executive  powers.  Through  his  representa- 
tives, his  authority  extended  to  the  small  local 
communities  and  there  was  no  real  redress  or  possi- 
bility of  obtaining  justice  against  the  decree  of  the 
officials.  Turkey  had  never  been  a  nation,  but 
rather  a  collection  of  ecclesiastical  nationalities,  if 
one  may  use  the  phrase,  each  religious  community 
having  its  head,  who  sought  to  see  that  justice  was 
done  his  followers.  Meantime,  however,  Christian 
schools  had  been  teaching  the  young  men  of  the 
country,  and  leading  Turks  had  studied  in  Europe, 
had  imbibed  Western  ideas,  and  at  the  same  time 
had  largely  lost  their  old  religious  beliefs.  The 
result  was  that  suddenly,  in  1908,  the  old  regime 
was  overthrown  and  the  Sultan  approved  of  the 
restoration  of  the  constitution,  which  he  had  him- 
self granted  in  1876  and  suspended  fourteen  months 
later.  The  watchwords  of  the  new  regime  were 
Liberty,  Justice,  Equality,  and  Fraternity,  the  use 


230    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

of  any  one  of  which  would  previously  have  brought 
down  severe  punishment.  In  temporal  matters,  the 
Sultan  is  now  a  constitutional  monarch,  advised  by 
a  cabinet,  which,  in  turn,  is  responsible  to  the  elected 
Turkish  Parliament.  All  Turkish  subjects  are  sup- 
posed to  have  equal  political  and  juridical  rights, 
and  all  discriminations  as  to  military  service  have 
been  abolished.  Islam  is  still  the  state  religion  and 
the  Sultan  remains  its  head.  "While  the  people  of 
Turkey  are  hardly  prepared  for  parliamentary 
institutions,  because  of  their  ignorance  and  the 
intensity  of  the  racial  and  religious  antagonisms, 
yet  the  new  regime  has  promise  in  it  of  much  that 
is  good,  the  great  obstacle  being  the  attitude  of  the 
European  powers. 

Since  this  paragraph  was  first  written,  the  world 
has  seen  the  Turk  all  but  driven  out  of  Europe  by 
the  Balkan  states,  which  for  a  time  sank  their  age- 
old  racial,  religious,  and  political  animosities,  and 
surprised  the  world  by  their  exhibition  of  military 
skill  and  power.  When  the  victory  had  been  won, 
its  fruits  were  largely  thrown  away  through  the 
selfishness  and  overweaning  ambitions  of  the 
states,  and  the  old  bitterness  is  revived  in  greater 
force.  All  of  this  goes  to  show  how  much  hollow- 
ness  there  can  be  in  political  reforms  unless  they 
are  wrought  out  by  people  who  have  been  so 
thoroughly  Christianized  and  educated  that  they 
can  act  a  Christian  part  in  international  relations. 
Judged  by  such  standards,  however,  what  nation 
has  yet  become  truly  Christian  ? 


Progress  in  Social  Reconstruction       231 

In  all  these  movements  in  the  farther  and  the 
nearer  East,  we  find  at  work  the  same  spirit, 
namely,  the  desire  to  organize  society  along  West- 
ern lines,  with  a  view  to  securing  greater  efficiency, 
raising  the  political  if  not  the  social  status  of  the 
individual,  and  entering  the  family  of  nations  on  a 
plane  of  equality  with  any  Western  nation.  In  the 
work  of  preparing  for  these  momentous  changes, 
which  portend  the  reorganization  of  society  on  a 
radically  different  basis,  the  work  of  the  missionary 
has  played  an  honourable  part.  Western  influence 
has  also  had  a  large  share,  especially  in  Japan.  In 
all  these  movements,  however,  there  is  one  weak- 
ness, less  acute  in  Japan  than  in  India,  and  perhaps 
less  marked  in  the  new  republican  China  than  in 
the  old  reformed  monarchical  China.  This  is  the 
lack  of  leaders,  who  possess  unimpeachable  char- 
acter, absolute  integrity,  utter  devotion  to  the  wel- 
fare of  the  country,  and  the  balance  and  sanity  that 
come  from  a  broad  and  a  Christian  education.  Un- 
less this  lack  can  be  supplied,  the  future  of  these 
new  political  movements  will  be  dark  and,  in  the 
end,  may  prove  a  disaster,  not  a  blessing.  It  is 
this  that  emphasizes  the  duty  of  the  Christian  West. 
It  is  a  threefold  task  that  lies  before  the  Church  : 
first,  so  to  influence  the  governments  of  the  West 
that  they  will  permit  these  new  nations  to  work 
out  their  own  problems  without  undue  interference ; 
secondly,  to  set  their  own  house  in  order,  so  that 
it  cannot  be  claimed,  as  it  is  now  claimed,  that 
Christianity  has  failed  to  solve  the  problems  of  the 


232    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

"West ;  and,  finally,  so  to  develop  its  work  of  edu- 
cation and  evangelization  that  it  will  put  a  Chris- 
tian impress  upon  the  leaders  of  the  new  Orient 
and  thus  ensure  that  the  new  developments  shall 
rest  upon  the  solid  foundation  of  the  Christian  con- 
victions of  leaders  and  followers  alike. 


VI 

CHRISTIANIZING  TENDENCIES  IN  NON- 
CHRISTIAN  RELIGIONS 

THE  first  five  chapters  have  discussed  the  re- 
lation of  Christian  missions  to  social  prog- 
ress in  mission  lands  and  have  shown  how- 
social  institutions  are  changing  under  the  influence 
of  the  West,  religious  and  secular.  Yet,  after  all, 
the  work  of  Christian  missions  is  religious.  The 
missionary  is  more  than  a  philanthropist,  educator, 
reformer.  He  is  engaged  in  teaching  the  religion 
of  Christ  and  in  persuading  men  to  forsake  their 
former  religious  allegiance  and  become  the  follow- 
ers of  the  Saviour.  He  thus  arrays  against  himself 
from  the  beginning  the  religious  forces  in  mission 
lands.  Much  as  the  dissatisfied  natives  may  wel- 
come the  good  news,  those  who  are  heartily  com- 
mitted to  the  old  views,  and  especially  those  who 
are  financially  interested  in  the  maintenance  of  the 
old  religion,  see  that  this  foreigner  is  engaged  in  a 
work  that  means  the  overthrow  of  their  old  cher- 
ished beliefs  or  of  their  means  of  livelihood.  What 
shall  be  the  result  of  this  impact  ? 

In  many  a  field  Christianity  has  met  animism 
and  the  lower  forms  of  religious  belief  and  has 
vanquished  them  completely.    The  old  religion  is 

233 


234    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

gone,  with  its  votaries.  This  is  true  in  Fiji  and  in 
certain  other  islands  of  the  Pacific;  it  is  true  in 
parts  of  Sumatra,  as  well  as  among  certain  tribes 
of  the  North  American  Indians.  But  now  Chris- 
tianity is  facing  the  strong  religions  of  the  world, 
which  claim  the  allegiance  of  millions,  which  have 
their  sacred  books  and  an  elaborate  philosophy  and 
theology,  and  which  are  entrenched  among  peoples 
with  a  high  degree  of  civilization.  These  are  foe- 
men  worthy  of  the  steel  of  the  Christian  warrior. 
Islam,  Hinduism,  Buddhism — these  claim  the  de- 
votion  of  considerably  more  than  half  a  billion, 
and  they  are  not  yielding  without  a  struggle. 
With  the  exception  of  Islam,  these  religions  have 
not  become  greatly  excited  over  the  Christian 
propaganda,  so  far  as  its  teaching  of  strange  doc- 
trines has  been  concerned.  They  have  felt  secure 
in  their  position  and  could  afford,  they  fondly  be- 
lieved, to  regard  with  more  or  less  of  supercilious- 
ness the  arrogant  attacks  by  foreigners  upon  their 
very  citadel.  Of  late  years,  however,  they  have 
come  to  recognize  in  these  Christian  workers  for- 
midable foes,  who  have  brought  from  the  West 
strange  educational  and  industrial  systems  and 
radical  political  ideals,  all  of  which  have  been 
steadily  undermining  their  own  defenses.  Hence, 
they  are  viewing  the  outlook  with  somewhat  of 
alarm,  and  are  attempting  a  new  disposition  of 
their  forces  against  the  invaders. 

One  of  these  old  religions,  Hinduism,  is  purely 
an  ethnic  religion,  which,  according  to  its  tenets, 


Christianizing  Tendencies  235 

can  never  cross  the  oceans,  and  which  has  made  no 
earnest  attempt  to  extend  its  sway  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  Indian  peninsula  and  its  adjacent 
islands.  The  other  two  are  the  great  rivals  of 
Christianity  as  a  missionary  religion. 

Islam  began  in  Arabia,  conquered  Syria,  Meso- 
potamia, and  Egypt ;  it  spread  westward  through 
North  Africa  and  eastward  through  Persia  ;  it  in- 
vaded Europe  and  threatened  to  control  the  conti- 
nent, and  it  was  with  difficulty  expelled  from  all 
but  one  corner.  It  then  spread  further  eastward  to 
India  and  China,  as  well  as  to  the  islands  to  the 
southeast  of  Asia,  to  Asia  Minor,  and  to  south- 
eastern Europe,  and  it  is  to-day  advancing  steadily 
but  surely  to  the  conquest  of  the  Dark  Continent. 

Buddhism,  which  is  older  than  its  younger  rivals, 
Christianity  and  Islam,  began  in  India,  left  its  im- 
pression upon  modern  Hinduism,  and  then  won  its 
way  northward  and  eastward  until  its  ideas  have 
become  dominant  in  the  thoughts  and  lives  of  one- 
third  of  the  human  race. 

Entrenched  in  the  system  of  caste,  Hinduism  is 
expanding  at  the  bottom  by  the  absorption  of 
aboriginal  tribes,  even  if  it  is  losing  control  of  some 
at  the  top. 

Yet,  secure  as  these  religions  may  appear  to  the 
outsider,  they  are  nevertheless  feeling  the  competi- 
tion of  Christianity.  They  are  unwilling  to  con- 
fess themselves  defeated.  Eather  would  they  re- 
sist the  disintegrating  tendencies,  either  by  a 
greater  insistence  upon  their  central  doctrines  or 


236    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

by  adaptations  to  meet  the  new  conditions.  Hin- 
duism and  Buddhism,  in  particular,  are  so  flexible, 
that  they  have  little  difficulty  in  even  adopting 
Christian  features  in  their  attempt  to  drive  back 
Christianity  by  meeting  it  on  its  own  ground.  These 
three  religions  are  contending  against  forces  that 
are  inevitably  making  for  their  disintegration  ;  but 
they  are  seeking  to  resist  this  process  by  incorpo- 
rating elements  stolen  bodily  from  Christianity. 

These  three  great  non-Christian  religions  were 
developed  among  peoples  whose  knowledge  was 
limited  and  who  had  no  conception  of  a  physical 
universe  governed  by  natural  laws.  They  took 
over  into  their  thought  and  practices  the  beliefs 
and  customs  of  that  primitive  animism  which  seems 
to  have  been  almost,  if  not  quite,  universally  prev- 
alent in  Africa,  Asia,  and  the  island  world,  and 
which  has  left  its  marks  even  upon  the  thinking  of 
the  most  advanced  peoples.  Their  ethical  ideals 
reflect  views  regarding  God  and  man  which  can- 
not produce  a  highly  developed  and  progressive 
civilization,  in  which  the  rights  of  each  individual 
are  fully  protected.  Their  cosmogony  is  crude  and 
unscientific,  and  their  mythology  absurd  and  often 
unethical.  Woman  is  given  a  position  quite  infe- 
rior to  that  of  man.  The  goal  of  life  is  essentially 
selfish  and  the  spirit  either  fatalistic  or  pessimistic. 

People  with  these  views  of  God  and  the  world 
have  now  been  brought  into  contact  with  "Western- 
trained  men,  who  have  gained  a  scientific  under- 
standing of  the  world  and  an  ability  to  use  its 


Christianizing  Tendencies  237 

natural  forces.  The  resulting  efficiency  has  forced 
the  people  of  the  Orient  to  respect  the  learning 
which  has  brought  many  of  them  under  subjection 
to  its  possessors,  and  many  of  them  have  come  to 
desire  it  for  themselves.  Hence,  the  great  devel- 
opment of  education  in  these  Eastern  countries. 
But,  with  the  knowledge  of  nature  derived  from  the 
study  of  Western  science,  their  old  cosmogony  and 
mythology  become  in  their  eyes  nothing  more  than 
superstition.  They  see  the  absurdity  of  their  old 
religious  beliefs,  with  the  result  that  the  students 
and  educated  classes  tend  to  break  with  the  old  re- 
ligion and  to  become  agnostics  or  atheists. 

A  religious  census  of  the  nearly  five  thousand 
students  in  the  University  of  Tokyo  revealed  the 
fact  that  Shintoism  and  Buddhism  held  the  alle- 
giance of  fewer  students  than  Christianity ;  that 
these  three  religions  numbered  their  followers  at 
hardly  more  than  a  hundred ;  and  that  the  re- 
mainder called  themselves  atheists  or  agnostics,  and 
in  Japan  agnostics  are  of  a  belligerent  type. 

To  be  sure,  some  persons,  chiefly  in  India,  seem 
to  be  able  to  hold  their  old  beliefs  with  one-half  of 
their  mind  and  accept  the  teachings  of  science  with 
the  other  half ;  but  this  anomaly  cannot  continue. 
Others  in  all  countries,  who  are  proud  of  their  past, 
wish  to  readjust  their  old  beliefs  into  harmony  with 
the  new  light.  Whichever  is  done,  it  means  that, 
so  far  as  these  educated  people  are  concerned  and 
those  whom  they  influence,  the  old  religions  will 
lose  their  hold  unless  they  can  be  modified.    Even 


238    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

among  the  common  people,  the  introduction  of  new 
machinery  and  the  working  before  their  eyes  of 
what  appear  to  be  marvels,  if  not  miracles,  tend  to 
shake  their  belief  in  the  powers  of  the  spirits  and 
demons.  At  the  same  time,  the  new  sanitary  and 
medical  measures  for  controlling  disease  break  the 
sense  of  fear,  and  thus  weaken  the  hold  of  the  gods 
through  whose  malignant  power  these  calamities 
were  supposed  to  come. 

Again,  with  the  introduction  of  the  new  industry 
and  the  new  means  of  communication,  as  was  shown 
in  a  previous  chapter,  the  social  organization 
changes,  and  this  modifies  the  attitude  of  the  peo- 
ple towards  the  religion  which  was  the  basis  and 
sanction  of  the  old  order.  Especially  in  India, 
where  the  caste  organization  is  the  church  of  the 
common  people,  the  old  restrictions  tend  to  weaken, 
and  this  means  the  lessening  of  the  hold  of  Hindu- 
ism. The  new  political  ideals  of  these  people  and 
the  old  religious  ideas  do  not  harmonize,  and  that 
which  is  coming  to  be  dearest  to  them,  the  political, 
tends  to  prevail. 

Instances  of  these  tendencies  are  seen  all  through 
Asia.  The  leaders  of  the  New  Turkey  are  nomi- 
nally Moslems,  but  actually  Islam  has  lost  its  hold 
over  many  of  them.  If  they  dared,  they  would  de- 
clare themselves  free  from  its  restraints  or  even 
come  out  openly  as  agnostics  or  free  thinkers.  One 
of  the  sources  of  the  strength  of  Mohammedanism 
has  been  its  exclusiveness ;  but  in  Turkey,  under 
the  new  regime,  intercourse  between  Christian  and 


Christianizing  Tendencies  239 

Moslem  is  increasing  to  a  remarkable  degree.  The 
missionaries  experience  no  difficulty  in  organizing, 
or  in  helping  to  organize,  clubs  in  which  they  meet 
Moslems  on  a  footing  of  equality  and  discuss  with 
them  interesting  questions,  historical,  literary,  po- 
litical, and  social.  Added  to  this  is  the  fact  that 
Moslems  are  reading  the  Bible  as  never  before. 
This  means  the  beginning  of  disintegration. 

In  India,  also,  the  same  process  is  going  on.  A 
generation  ago,  few  village  Hindus  could  be  found 
who  failed  to  defend  polytheism  and  idolatry  as  es- 
sentials of  their  faith.  Now  there  is  coming  to  be 
a  universal  assent  to  the  unity  of  God,  though  in  a 
pantheistic  sense,  and  polytheism  is  explained  away. 
Idolatry  is  declared  to  belong  to  a  kindergarten 
stage  of  development,  and  to  be  good  only  for  the 
ignorant,  or  for  women  and  children.  Even  a 
prominent  orthodox  Hindu  has  been  known  to  de- 
clare, "  How  can  we  be  blind  to  the  greatness,  the 
unrivalled  splendour  of  Jesus  Christ  ?  Behind  the 
British  Empire  and  all  European  powers  lies  a  sin- 
gle great  personality, — the  greatest  of  all  known  to 
us,— of  Jesus  Christ.  He  lives  in  Europe  and 
America,  in  Asia  and  Africa,  as  King  and  Guide 
and  Teacher.  He  lives  in  our  midst.  He  seeks  to 
revivify  religion  in  India.  We  owe  everything, 
even  this  deep  yearning  towards  our  ancient  Hindu- 
ism, to  Christianity."  '  Not  a  few  believe  that  the 
tenth,  that  is,  the  coming  incarnation  of  Yishnu  re- 
fers to  Christ.  A  Hindu  Saivite  priest  told  an 
1  Jones,  J.  P.,  "  India's  Problem,  Krishna  or  Christ,"  p.  357, 


240    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

American  missionary  that  he  proposed  to  place  in 
his  temple  an  image  of  Christ,  as  they  had  placed 
there  one  of  Vishnu  ! !  When  Hindu  leaders  begin 
to  take  such  an  attitude  towards  Christ,  it  means 
that  their  loyalty  to  their  former  beliefs  is  chang- 
ing. They  are  admitting  into  their  religious  think- 
ing elements  that  will  profoundly  modify  their 
former  position.  A  similar  process  is  found  else- 
where, and  it  may  be  said  that,  in  general,  these 
ancient  faiths  are  gradually  losing  vitality,  and  un- 
dergoing a  process  of  disintegration,  except  as  they 
are  trying  to  meet  the  competition  of  Christianity 
by  adopting  Christian  elements. 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that  Islam 
has  been  modified  in  those  regions  where  it  has  come 
into  close  touch  with  Christianity,  and  that  one 
must  go  into  isolated  regions  to  see  it  at  its  worst. 
The  Mohammedanism  of  India  is  very  different 
from  that  of  Turkestan,  for  instance,  and  that  of 
Constantinople  from  that  of  Kurdistan.  Further 
than  this,  there  have  arisen  in  India  certain  leaders 
and  sects  which  have  attempted  to  Westernize  Islam 
and  interpret  it  into  harmony  with  present  social 
and  ethical  ideals.  While  the  religion  of  the  great 
prophet  has  been  divided  into  many  schools,  and  has 
had  its  reforming  movements,  yet  there  has  been  a 
point  beyond  which  it  could  not  seem  to  get. 
Grant  that  the  religious  system  and  the  political 
system  were  alike  founded  by  Mohammed,  and  that 

1  Jones,  J.  P.,  "  India's  Problem,  Krishna  or  Christ,"  p.  359. 


Christianizing  Tendencies  24 1 

the  records  were  literally  and  eternally  inspired ; 
admit,  also,  the  fatalistic  spirit  which  has  charac- 
terized that  religion,  and  one  can  see  that,  without 
the  introduction  of  new  principles  of  interpretation 
or  of  new  factors,  the  social  system  of  Islam  be- 
comes stationary.1 

Twenty  years  and  more  ago,  reform  movements 
began  in  India  among  the  leaders  of  the  60,000,000 

1  "  The  reasons  why  Islam  as  a  social  system  has  been  a  com- 
plete failure  are  manifold. 

"  First  and  foremost,  Islam  keeps  women  in  a  position  of 
marked  inferiority.  In  the  second  place,  Islam,  speaking  not  so 
much  through  the  Koran  as  through  the  traditions  which  cluster 
round  the  Koran,  crystallizes  religion  and  law  into  one  insepara- 
ble and  immutable  whole,  with  the  result  that  all  elasticity  is 
taken  away  from  the  social  system.  If  to  this  day  an  Egyptian 
goes  to  law  over  a  question  of  testamentary  succession,  his  case  is 
decided  according  to  the  antique  principles  which  were  laid  down 
as  applicable  to  the  primitive  society  of  the  Arabian  Peninsula  in 
the  seventh  century.     .     .     . 

"The  rigidity  of  the  Sacred  Law  has  been  at  times  slightly 
tempered  by  well-meaning  and  learned  Moslems  who  have  tor- 
tured their  brains  in  devising  sophisms  to  show  that  the  legal 
principles  and  social  system  of  the  seventh  century  can,  by  some 
strained  and  intricate  process  of  reasoning,  be  consistently  and 
logically  made  to  conform  with  the  civilized  practices  of  the  twen- 
tieth century.  But,  as  a  rule,  custom  based  on  religious  law, 
coupled  with  exaggerated  reverence  for  the  original  lawgiver, 
holds  all  those  who  cling  to  the  faith  of  Islam  with  a  grip  of  iron 
from  whioh  there  is  no  escape.  '  During  the  Middle  Ages, '  it  has 
been  truly  said,  'man  lived  enveloped  in  a  cowl.'  The  true  Mos- 
lem of  the  present  day  is  even  more  tightly  enveloped  in  the 
Sheriat. 

"In  the  third  place  Islam  does  not,  indeed,  encourage,  but  it 
tolerates  slavery. 


242    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

Moslems    there.1     These   have  in   themselves  the 
promise  of  profound  changes. 

The  leader  in  one  line  of  work  was  Sir  Sayed 
Ahmed  Khan  of  Aligarh,  who  was  born  in  1817,  of 
a  pure-blooded  famiJy  of  lineal  descendants  of  Mo- 
hammed. He  entered  the  civil  service  in  1838  and 
served  England  well  at  the  time  of  the  Mutiny. 
He  visited  England  in  1869-1870,  where  he  was  pre- 
sented to  the  Queen  and  Prince  of  Wales  and 
made  a  careful  study  of  English  life.  On  his  re- 
turn to  India,  he  came  to  realize  that,  although  the 
Moslems  had  conquered  and  for  centuries  had  ruled 
India,  yet,  since  the  passing  of  their  political  power, 
they  had  not  maintained  their  position.  He  saw 
that  they  had  been  overtaken  and  passed  by  the 
Hindus  in  education,  wealth,  and  influence.  He 
therefore  preached  the  gospel  of  self-help,  and  tried 
to  arouse  the  Moslems  to  remedy  their  condition  by 
education.  The  chief  result  of  his  efforts  has  al- 
ready been  mentioned,  namely,  the  opening  in 
Aligarh,  in  1878,  of  the  Anglo-Mohammedan  Col- 
lege. The  college  has  had  a  useful  career,  having 
furnished,  during  the  years  1898-1902,  116  out  of 
the  478  Moslem  graduates  in  India.  It  is  now  de- 
veloping into  a  university.     One  object  of  the  col- 

"  Lastly,  Islam  has  the  reputation  of  being  an  intolerant  relig- 
ion, and  the  reputation  is,  from  some  points  of  view,  well  de- 
served, though  the  bald  sweeping  accusation  of  intolerauce  re- 
quires qualification  and  explanation.  .  .  ." — Cromer,  "  Mod- 
ern Egypt,"  Vol.  II,  p.  134  et  seq. 

1  Vid.  Zwemer,  S.  M.,  et  al.}  "  The  Mohammedan  World  of 
To-day,"  p.  187  et  aeq. 


Christianizing  Tendencies  243 

lege,  it  has  been  declared,  is  the  training  of  a  new- 
type  of  mulla.  Its  principals  have  been  able  Eng- 
lish educators  and  they  have  impressed  upon  the  in- 
stitution some  of  the  spirit  of  the  English  public 
school  and  university.  At  the  same  time,  it  must 
be  added  that  the  atmosphere  of  the  college  is 
rather  secular.  Eight  years  after  the  founding  of 
the  college,  Sir  Sayed  Ahmed  initiated  an  annual 
Educational  Conference  for  Mohammedans,  which 
has  led  the  efforts  of  progressive  Moslems. 

One  of  the  leaders  in  the  later  movements  has 
been  the  Agha  Khan,  the  leader  of  the  Bora  com- 
munity of  Bombay,  a  wealthy  mercantile  tribe. 
He  has  denounced  the  seclusion  of  women  as  a 
barrier  to  the  progress  of  the  whole  community, 
has  combatted  the  fatalistic  spirit,  and  has  opposed 
the  formalism  which  supports  in  idleness  fakirs  and 
keepers  of  spurious  Moslem  shrines.  Quite  a  con- 
troversy has  proceeded  as  to  the  seclusion  of  women 
and  polygamy.  Polygamy  has  been  defended  by 
mulvis  of  the  old  school  with  the  crudest  and 
coarsest  arguments,  while  the  reformers  have 
vindicated  the  rights  of  women  in  a  modern  and 
almost  Christian  spirit.  Progressive  Moslems  have 
broken  through  custom,  and  gone  about  with  their 
wives  and  daughters  unveiled  ;  and  this  usually 
means  in  European  dress.  Even  in  matters  of 
social  intercourse,  in  which  the  Moslems  followed 
Hindu  customs,  the  progressive  section  has  broken 
over  the  barriers.  One  of  the  latest  outgrowths  of 
this  Educational  Conference  has  been  the  starting 


244    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

of  a  training  school  for  female  teachers,  something 
hitherto  unheard  of  in  Islam. 

Sir  Sayed  Ahmed  was  not  sufficiently  educated 
to  take  the  lead  in  reconciling  modern  thought  and 
the  religion  of  Islam.  To  be  sure,  he  was,  to  a 
certain  extent,  a  rationalist.  Thus  he  put  forth  a 
modified  theory  of  inspiration,  declaring  that  not 
every  part  of  the  sacred  book  is  equally  inspired, 
and  that  we  may  acknowledge  in  it  a  human 
element.  He  regarded  conscience  as  a  condition 
of  man's  character,  which  results  from  training 
and  reflection.  It  may  rightly  be  called  his  true 
guide.  Still,  it  is  liable  to  mutability  and  needs  to 
be  corrected  from  time  to  time  by  historic  prophets. 
The  principles  of  these  prophets  must  be  themselves 
tested  by  comparison  with  the  laws  of  nature. 
This  was  as  far  as  he  went.  Others,  however, 
have  attempted  a  more  thorough  Westernized  inter- 
pretation of  Islam. 

About  twenty  years  ago,  two  Moslem  thinkers  ■ 
announced  themselves  as  Moslem  rationalists,  and 
declared  that  all  articles  of  faith  should  be  tested 
by  reason.  Acting  upon  this  principle,  they  denied 
the  existence  of  the  Koran  before  creation.  They 
asserted  that  man  creates  his  own  acts,  that  the 
ethical  nature  of  acts  may  be  ascertained  by  reason, 
and  that  the  future  of  a  man  depends,  not  upon  a 
profession  of  faith,  but  upon  his  past  conduct. 
They  accepted  the  Koran,  but  regarded  the 
Sheriat,  the  reported  sayings  and  interpretations 

1  Vid.  Contemporary  Review,  Aug. ,  1893. 


Christianizing  Tendencies  245 

of  Mohammed,  as  merely  common  law,  designed  to 
meet  specific  needs  and  not  irrevocable.  The  spirit 
and  not  the  letter  of  the  Koran,  they  held,  should 
be  regarded,  while  the  civil  precepts  were  merely 
temporary  in  their  nature.  By  declaring  that  even 
the  Koran  should  be  rationally  interpreted,  they 
believed  that  Islam  could  keep  pace  with  the  most 
rapidly  developing  civilizations.  They  also  opposed 
Mohammedan  ethics.  Polygamy  and  slavery  they 
denounced,  even  declaring  that  neither  could  be 
supported  by  the  example  and  teaching  of  Mo- 
hammed. In  the  matter  of  easy  divorce,  they  de- 
clared :  "  As  usual,  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  have 
taken  up  the  temporary  permission  as  a  positive 
rule  and  ignored  the  principles  of  humanity,  justice, 
and  equity  inculcated  by  the  Master."  When  one 
has  rejected  the  civil  institutions  of  the  Sheriat 
and  held  that  the  moral  teachings  are  temporary 
measures,  not  positive  injunctions,  it  is  hard  to  see 
how  much  is  left,  and  yet  this  is  what  these  men 
attempted,  in  their  effort  to  harmonize  Islam  and 
modern  ethics.  They  would  have  agreed  with  an 
official  of  Hyderabad  who  publicly  declared  :  "  To 
me  it  seems  that  as  a  nation  and  a  religion  we  are 
dying  out ;  our  day  is  past  and  we  have  little  hope 
of  the  future.  Unless  a  miracle  of  reform  occurs, 
we  Mohammedans  are  doomed  to  extinction,  and 
we  shall  have  deserved  our  fate.  For  God's  sake, 
let  the  reform  take  place  before  it  is  too  late." 

Other  reformers  have  attempted  a  middle  way 
between    such  extremes  and  the  impossible  old 


246    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

standards.  One  of  these  was  Mirza  Ghulam 
Ahmed  of  Qadian  in  the  Punjab.  He  was  dis- 
quieted by  the  inroads  of  Christianity  upon  the 
Moslems  of  the  central  Punjab,  and  announced 
himself  as  a  prophet,  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 
return  of  Jesus  and  the  judgment  day.  He  re- 
jected the  doctrine  of  the  Jihad,  or  holy  war 
against  pagans,  which,  he  declared,  is  not  per- 
missible under  present  circumstances.  Slavery, 
likewise,  he  denounced,  claiming  that  the  Koran 
intended  it  to  be  abolished  gradually.  He  de- 
clared the  veiling  of  women,  divorce,  and  polyg- 
amy to  be  merely  permissible,  in  order  to  prevent 
worse  evils  ; '  but  he  availed  himself  to  the  full  of  the 
permission  regarding  polygamy.  His  movement, 
which  gained  thousands  of  adherents,  was  bitterly 
anti-Christian  and  anti-Hindu.  After  his  death  in 
1908  from  cholera,  though  he  had  promised  his  fol- 
lowers immunity  from  pestilence,  the  sect  declined. 

Lucknow  and  Lahore  are  the  headquarters  of 
societies  which  seek  to  promote  Moslem  education 
on  a  modern  basis,  but  with  less  departure  from 
Moslem  orthodoxy  than  Sir  Sayed  Ahmed's  school. 
The  former  has  branches  in  Madras  and  elsewhere. 
It  claims  that  the  features  of  Christian  civilization 
which  are  attracting  Moslems  towards  Christianity 
have  no  connection  with  the  Christian  religion. 

The  orthodox  Moslem  theory  was  that  the  Koran, 
as  a  sacred  and  inspired  book,  could  not  be  trans- 
lated.   In  India,  a  concession  had  been  made  to  the 

1  Zwemer,  S.  M.f  et  ah,  op.  eit.t  p.  199  et  seq. 


Christianizing  Tendencies  247 

rights  of  those  who  knew  only  the  vernacular,  and 
a  bald  translation  produced  in  Urdu,  the  language 
which  the  Moslems  made  the  lingua  franca  of  In- 
dia. More  recently,  however,  idiomatic  transla- 
tions have  been  produced,  one  of  them  by  a  well- 
known  novelist.  The  use  of  fiction  for  teaching 
religious  and  social  ideas  has  been  adopted,  while 
monthly  and  weekly  periodicals  and  newspapers 
have  been  started.  The  Mohammedan  Tract  and 
Book  Depot  in  Lahore  is  issuing  works  in  English, 
which  defend  Islam  and  try  to  reconcile  its  teach- 
ings and  its  history  with  modern  views. 

Other  reformers  have  declared  that  the  village 
mullas  are  degraded,  that  there  are  in  consequence 
abuses  of  marriage  rites,  and  that  the  Moslems 
should  institute  a  reformation  similar  to  that  in 
Europe  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

It  cannot  be  asserted  that  these  movements  have 
yet  taken  much  hold  of  the  Moslem  community  in 
India,  but  they  are  indications  of  the  way  in  which 
those  who  have  received  a  Western  education  are 
seeking  to  reconcile  their  new  scientific  and  social 
views  with  loyalty  to  their  religion  and  thus  to 
check  the  movements  which  are  leading  Moslems 
to  abandon  the  ancestral  faith. 

There  is  also  a  reform  party  in  Egypt,  which  de- 
nounces certain  features  of  Islam  with  a  vigour  that 
would  not  be  tolerated  in  a  Christian. 

On  passing  from  Islam  to  Hinduism,  one  discov- 
ers that  the  reform  movements  among  the  Hindus 


248    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

have  gained  a  greater  following,  though  even  here 
the  more  progressive  movements  are  either  station- 
ary or  retrogressive,  and  the  growing  ones  are  those 
with  reactionary  tendencies. 

The  fourth  chapter  described  some  of  the  ethical 
reforms  in  India,  which  have  curtailed  a  few  of  the 
worst  excesses  adhering  to  Hinduism,  and  the  open- 
ing paragraphs  of  this  showed  that  the  general  atti- 
tude towards  some  of  the  tenets  has  been  modified. 
It  remains  only  to  discuss  the  reforming  Hindu 
sects,  the  Brahma-Samaj  and  the  Arya-Samaj. 

The  movement  known  as  the  Brahma-Samaj  has, 
during  its  existence  of  a  century,  gone  through 
many  vicissitudes  under  four  great  leaders,  Kaja 
Earn  Mohan  Koy,  Debendra  Nath  Tagore,  Keshub 
Chunder  Sen,  and  Protab  Chandra  Mazumdar.1 

The  first  of  these  was  a  Brahman  who  was  born 
near  Calcutta  about  the  time  of  the  opening  of  the 
Kevolutionary  War  in  America.  As  we  were  clos- 
ing our  second  war  with  Great  Britain,  he  went  to 
Calcutta  to  fight  against  the  evil  social  conditions 
then  prevailing,  namely,  immorality,  caste,  sati,  in- 
fanticide, and  the  position  of  women.  He  advo- 
cated the  unity  of  God,  learned  Greek  and  Hebrew 
in  order  to  study  the  Bible  in  the  original,  and 
later  declared,  "I  have  found  the  doctrines  of 
Christ  more  conducive  to  moral  principles  and 
better  adapted  for  the  use  of  rational  beings  than 

1  Vid.  Murdoch,  J.,  "Papers  on  Indian  Religious  Reform"  ; 
"Encyo.  Brit.,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  388;  Vol.  XXII,  p.  877;  Vol.  XV, 
p.  759. 


Christianizing  Tendencies  249 

any  other  which  has  come  to  my  knowledge."  He 
assisted  Carey  and  his  associates  at  Serampore  in 
the  translation  of  the  Scriptures ;  at  times  he  at- 
tended Christian  worship  ;  he  secured  for  Dr.  Duff 
the  house  in  which  he  opened  the  Scottish  Mission- 
ary Institution  ;  and  he  recommended  that  the 
day's  work  be  begun  with  the  Lord's  Prayer. 

Just  before  1830,  he  and  his  friends  began  to 
meet  every  Saturday  evening  for  public  worship 
and  united  prayer,  the  first  time  that  this  had  ever 
been  done  by  Hindus.  In  1830,  the  first  theistic 
church  was  opened  in  Calcutta.  It  was  called  the 
Society  of  Believers  in  Brahama  (neuter),  the  one 
self-existent  god  of  Hinduism.  No  image,  statue, 
or  picture  was  to  be  admitted  to  the  building,  no 
sacrifices  were  to  be  offered,  and  nothing  that  was 
recognized  by  others  as  an  object  of  worship  was  to 
be  spoken  of  with  contempt.  Every  sermon  was  to 
promote  piety,  morality,  charity,  benevolence,  vir- 
tue, and  union  between  men  of  all  religious  creeds, 
or  to  assist  in  the  contemplation  of  the  author  and 
preserver  of  the  universe.  Kaja  Ram  Mohan  Roy 
believed  in  the  unity  and  personality  of  God  and  in 
the  individual  immortality  of  the  soul.  He  called 
Christ  Redeemer,  Mediator,  and  Intercessor.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  rejected  the  Christian  doctrines 
of  the  trinity  and  the  atonement,  the  day  of  judg- 
ment and  miracles,  as  well  as  the  Hindu  belief  in 
transmigration.  He  was  also  prominent  in  social 
reform  and  he  rendered  one  of  his  greatest  social 
services  in  England,  where  he  died  in  1833.    That 


250    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

service,  as  already  described,  was  leadership  in  the 
agitation  which  prevented  the  British  Government 
from  annulling  the  order  of  1829  against  sati 
Though  he  broke  the  rules  of  caste,  he  never  did 
this  openly  lest  he  forfeit  his  property.  Yet,  in 
spite  of  this  moral  weakness,  he  was  a  spiritually 
earnest  man  and  very  nearly  a  Christian. 

The  next  leader  in  this  theistic  movement  was 
Debendra  Nath  Tagore.  After  several  years  spent 
in  satisfying  his  sensuous  and  sensual  desires,  he  had 
a  wonderful  spiritual  experience  in  which  he  says, 
"  The  world  lost  its  attractions  and  God  became 
my  only  comfort  and  delight  in  this  world  of  sor- 
row and  sin."  Since  the  death,  in  1833,  of  its 
founder,  the  Samaj  had  become  little  more  than  a 
platform  for  discussion.  The  new  leader  joined  the 
society  in  1842,  at  the  age  of  twenty -eight,  and  re- 
vived it.  The  principal  duties  he  taught  were  the 
worship  through  love  and  good  deeds  of  the  one 
God,  the  avoidance  of  the  worship  of  any  created 
object,  the  abstention  from  vicious  deeds,  and,  in 
the  case  of  falling  into  vice,  added  caution  to  pre- 
vent a  recurrence  of  the  sin.  He  sought  his  moral 
precepts,  not  in  the  New  Testament,  but  in  the 
Upanishads,  the  second  division  of  the  Vedas,  which 
contain  the  beginnings  of  Hindu  philosophy.  His 
sense  of  sin  was  weak.  To  him  sinfulness  and  car- 
nality were  the  private  concerns  of  individual  men, 
and  ought  to  be  conquered  by  resolute  determina- 
tion. Yet  his  writings  and  teachings  breathed  a 
ipirit  very  different  from  that  of  orthodox  Hindu- 


Christianizing  Tendencies  25 1 

ism.  As  an  example,  take  this  prayer  with  which 
he  concluded  one  of  his  sermons : 

"  O  Thou  supreme  Soul,  as  Thou  hast  made  us 
independent,  do  not  leave  us  alone — our  entire  de- 
pendence is  upon  Thee.  Thou  art  our  help  and 
wealth  ;  Thou  art  our  Father  and  Friend  ;  we  take 
shelter  in  Thee;  do  Thou  show  us  Thy  beautiful 
and  complacent  face.  Purify  me  with  Thy  love 
and  so  strengthen  my  will  that  I  may  be  able  to 
perform  Thy  good  works  for  my  whole  life."  l  He 
gave  a  printing-press  to  the  Samaj  and  established 
a  monthly  journal,  which  did  much  to  give  strength 
and  beauty  to  the  Bengali  language. 

About  1850,  the  first  schism  occurred  in  the 
body.  This  was  due  to  the  withdrawal  of  a  sec- 
tion which  held  the  greater  part  of  the  Yedas  to 
be  polytheistic,  and  claimed  nature  and  intuition  as 
the  basis  of  faith.  Between  1847  and  1 858  branches 
were  started  in  different  parts  of  India,  especially 
in  Bengal,  and  the  progress  was  rapid  because  of 
the  spread  of  English  education  and  the  work  of 
Christian  missionaries. 

The  creed  of  the  Brahmas  was  formulated  as  con- 
taining fourteen  articles : 

1.  As  the  basis  of  religious  faith,  the  book  of 
nature  and  intuition. 

2.  The  acceptance  of  any  religious  truth  con- 
tained in  any  book. 

3.  The  progressiveness  of  the  religious  condition 
of  man. 

1  Murdoch,  op.  *it,  "  Brahma  Samaj,"  •to.,  p.  21. 


252    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

4.  The  fundamental  doctrines  of  every  true  re- 
ligion the  same. 

5.  The  existence  of  one  supreme,  personal, 
moral,  and  intelligent  God,  who  is  alone  to  be  wor- 
shipped, and  the  rejection  of  all  incarnations. 

6.  The  immortality  and  progressive  state  of  the 
soul,  and  a  state  of  conscious  existence  succeeding 
life  in  this  world,  and  supplementary  to  it  in  the 
matter  of  the  universal  moral  government. 

7.  Kepentance  the  only  way  to  salvation  and  to 
reconciliation  to  the  offended  but  loving  Father. 

8.  Belief  in  the  efficacy  of  prayer  for  spiritual 
welfare. 

9.  The  providential  care  of  the  divine  Father. 

10.  Love  towards  Him  and  the  performance  of 
the  works  that  He  loves  as  constituting  worship. 

11.  The  necessity  of  public  worship,  but  com- 
munion not  dependent  upon  it. 

12.  Eejection  of  pilgrimages  and  the  belief  that 
holiness  can  be  secured  only  by  elevating  and  puri- 
fying the  mind. 

13.  Rejection  of  faith  in  rites,  ceremonies,  and 
penances.  Moral  righteousness,  the  gaining  of  wis- 
dom, divine  contemplation,  charity,  and  the  culti- 
vation of  devotional  feelings  are  their  rites  and 
ceremonies. 

14.  Theoretically,  no  distinction  of  caste  be- 
tween those  who  are  children  of  God  and,  there- 
fore, brothers  and  sisters  to  one  another.1 

The  third  theistic  leader  was  Keshub  Chunder 

1  "Encyc.  Brit.,"  Vol.  IV,  p.  388. 


Christianizing  Tendencies  253 

Sen,  whose  life,  written  by  his  disciple  Mazumdar, 
was  the  first  true  biography  ever  written  by  a 
Hindu.  He  was  a  native  of  Calcutta,  and  early 
gave  promise  of  the  future,  being  marked  by  so 
bright  a  mind  that  he  was  regarded  by  all  as  a 
prodigy.  In  this  judgment  he  heartily  concurred. 
As  a  youth  he  was  not  religious  but  he  had  great 
purity  of  moral  nature.  He  became  intimate  with 
three  missionaries,  one  of  whom  was  a  Unitarian. 
He  started  classes  for  the  benefit  of  his  companions, 
in  which  Shakespeare  was  studied  and  acted.  He 
was  an  omnivorous  reader  and  spent  his  days  in  the 
Calcutta  Public  Library,  reading  poetry  and  es- 
pecially the  history  of  philosophy.  He  had  become 
a  member  of  the  Brahma-Samaj  in  1857.  Three 
years  later  he  began  to  publish  tracts.  He  depre- 
cated the  willingness  of  the  educated  classes  to  talk 
reform,  but  their  unwillingness  to  carry  out  re- 
forms, and  he  attributed  it  to  a  lack  of  an  active 
religious  principle.  A  godless  education,  he  held, 
should  be  opposed. 

In  1862,  he  became  the  minister  of  one  branch  of 
the  Brahma-Samaj  and  soon  after  issued  an  appeal 
to  young  India,  in  which  he  took  the  position  that 
the  fundamental  evil  of  Indian  society  was  idolatry, 
followed  by  caste,  marriage  customs,  and  the  zenana 
system.  "  Ninety-nine  evils  out  of  every  hundred 
in  Hindu  society  are,  in  my  opinion,  attributable  to 
idolatry  and  superstition."  "If  you  wish  to  re- 
generate this  country,  make  religion  the  basis  of  all 
your  reform  movements."    In  1866  he  electrified 


254    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

missionary  circles  by  an  address  entitled,  "Jesus 
Christ,  Europe  and  Asia,"  in  which  he  glorified 
Jesus.  "  Was  He  not  above  ordinary  humanity  ? 
Blessed  Jesus,  immortal  Child  of  God,"  but  five 
years  later  he  held  that  all  great  men  are  god-men, 
divine  incarnations.  The  scriptures  of  the  Samaj 
were  a  compilation  from  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Christian,  Moslem,  Par  see,  and  Hindu.  Their  tenets 
were :  "  (1)  The  wide  universe  is  the  temple  of 
God.  (2)  Wisdom  is  the  pure  land  of  pilgrimage. 
(3)  Truth  is  the  everlasting  scripture.  (4)  Faith  is  the 
root  of  all  Religion.  (5)  Love  is  the  true  spiritual 
culture.  (6)  The  destruction  of  selfishness  is  the 
true  asceticism."  ' 

Keshub  Chunder  Sen  was  also  a  social  reformer. 
In  fact,  the  radical  character  of  his  programme  led 
to  a  rupture  in  1865.  He  and  his  followers  demanded 
the  abandonment  of  the  external  signs  of  caste  dis- 
tinctions. The  older  leaders  were  so  opposed  to 
his  innovations  as  premaure  that,  in  1866,  he  with- 
drew to  form  a  new  branch  known  as  the  Brahma- 
Samaj  of  India,  with  God  as  the  head  and  Keshub 
as  the  secretary.  The  more  conservative  members 
called  themselves  the  Adi-  (original)  Samaj,  and 
declared  their  aim  to  be  the  fulfilling  rather  than 
the  abrogating  of  the  old  religion.  The  vitality  of 
the  movement  had  left  it  and  the  Adi-Samaj  became 
hardly  distinguishable  from  orthodox  Hinduism, 
while  Debendra  Nath  Tagore  escaped  his  difficulties 
by  becoming  an  ascetic.     The  new  body  made  rapid 

1  "  Enoyc.  Brit.,"  Vol.  XV,  p.  760. 


Christianizing  Tendencies  255 

progress  until  1878.  As  a  part  of  his  social  work, 
Keshub  Chunder  Sen  was  active  in  securing  the 
passage  of  the  law,  mentioned  elsewhere,  which 
authorized  inter-caste  marriages  between  the  Erah- 
mas,  and  raised  the  minimum  ages  to  eighteen  and 
fourteen. 

About  this  time  his  followers  began  to  abase 
themselves  before  him  and  sing  praises  in  his  honour 
as  an  abode  of  God.  He  refused  to  stop  them. 
His  head  was  evidently  turned,  and  after  1878, 
when  his  daughter  was  married  before  the  age  of 
fourteen  and  he  claimed  that  in  this  he  but  followed 
the  will  of  God,  his  course  was  rather  downward, 
until  he  died  in  1884.  As  a  result  of  the  controversy 
over  this  marriage  question,  another  secession  oc- 
curred, and  the  seceders,  who  called  themselves  the 
Sadharana  (Universal)  Brahma-Samaj,  became  the 
most  popular  and  progressive  section  of  the  move- 
ment and  are  to-day  conspicuous  in  the  cause  of 
literary  culture,  social  reform,  and  female  educa- 
tion. 

These  movements,  which  were  profoundly  influ- 
enced by  Christianity,  had  in  them  promise;  but 
because  of  their  break  with  Hinduism  and  the  lack 
of  a  real  vital  religious  principle,  they  have  become 
little  more  than  another  caste.  Their  numbers 
hardly  exceed  four  thousand,  mostly  found  in  Cal- 
cutta and  its  neighbourhood.  Yet  they  have  had  an 
influence  upon  social  reform  and  are  significant  of 
the  leaven  of  Christianity  within  Hinduism. 

The  other  great  movement  within  Hinduism,  the 


256    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

Arya-Samaj,1  is  nationalistic  and  anti-Christian  in 
its  spirit,  and  has  been  called  into  being  by  those 
who  would  throw  off  the  excrescences  of  Hinduism, 
return  to  the  purity  of  the  primitive  faith,  and, 
upon  this  as  a  basis,  reconstruct  Hindu  thought 
and  organization.  They  would  combine  Western 
political  and  social  ideals  with  Indian  religious 
thought.  This  revival  has  been  assisted  by  the 
study  of  Sanscrit,  which  the  British  introduced 
through  the  universities,  and  by  the  application  of 
scientific  methods  for  sifting  the  old  and  pure  from 
the  new  and  impure. 

The  founder  of  this  sect,  which  has  some  100,000 
members  and  is  growing  in  these  days  of  anti-for- 
eign feeling,  was  a  Gujarati  Brahman,  Dayanand 
Saraswati.  He  early  became  dissatisfied  with 
idolatry  and  began  to  study  the  Vedic  philosophy, 
in  the  hope  of  solving  the  problen  of  the  Buddha, 
namely,  how  to  alleviate  human  misery  and  attain 
final  liberation. 

About  1866,  when  he  was  some  forty  years  old, 
he  first  saw  the  Bible  and  about  the  same  time  the 
Kig  Yeda.  The  former  he  assailed,  while  the  latter 
he  extolled.  He  accepted  the  four  Yedas  but  re- 
jected all  the  later  sacred  writings. 

The  principal  beliefs  of  this  reformer  were : 2 

1.  The  Yedas  are  eternal.  The  present  edi- 
tion was  taught  by  God  to  the  first  four  men  cre- 
ated. 

^'Encyc.  Brit.,"  Vol.  II,  p.  712. 

8 Murdoch,  Rev.  J.,  op.  eit.,  "Account of  theVedas,"p.  151  etseq. 


Christianizing  Tendencies  257 

2.  God  is  one.  He  opposed  an  Indian  theism  to 
a  foreign  theism. 

3.  Souls  are  eternal.  Whatever  now  exists  has 
always  existed  and  will  always  exist.  A  belief  in 
transmigration  necessarily  follows  this. 

4.  There  can  be  no  sacrifice  for  sin. 

In  these  four  truths  he  brushed  away  the  idolatry 
of  Hinduism  and  much  of  its  superstition.  The 
remaining  truths  concern  social  conditions. 

5.  He  rejected  caste.  One  may  eat  food  from 
any  hand  save  that  of  a  Christian  or  Moslem. 

6.  He  denounced  child  marriage,  but  rejected 
second  marriages,  save  temporary  ones  by  which  a 
widow,  if  she  so  desired,  might  secure  children. 
Children  were  to  be  taken  from  their  parents,  after 
they  were  five  years  old,  put  into  schools  eight 
miles  from  any  village,  with  the  sexes  strictly 
separated,  and  taught  by  teachers  of  the  same  sex. 

The  object  of  the  Samaj  was  declared  to  be  to 
benefit  the  world  by  improving  its  physical,  social, 
intellectual,  and  moral  conditions.  Of  late  years, 
this  movement  has  rather  compromised  on  the  sub- 
ject of  caste,  and  thus  has  secured  a  larger  following. 

Dayanand  Saraswati  read  into  the  Yedas  all  he 
wished  of  his  own  beliefs  and  of  Western  scientific 
discoveries.  Thus,  he  explained  the  Yedic  sacri- 
ficial cult  as  "  the  entertainment  of  the  learned  in 
proportion  to  their  worth,  the  business  of  manu- 
facture, the  experiment  and  application  of  chemis- 
try, physics,  and  the  arts  of  peace ;  the  instruction 
of  the  people,  the  purification  of  the  air,  the  nour- 


258    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

ishment  of  vegetables  by  the  employment  of  the 
principles  of  meteorology."  One  can  imagine  the 
amazement  of  his  first  four  men  when  informed 
that  their  writings  meant  all  that.  He  also  found 
in  the  Vedas  the  steam  engine, — the  white  horse 
cannot  possibly  mean  anything  else, — railways, 
steamers,  guns,  balloons,  and  the  like ;  and  had  he 
lived  until  our  day,  he  would  not  have  failed  to 
include  the  aeroplane.  With  equal  convincingness, 
he  argued  against  the  use  of  animal  food,  because, 
in  the  lifetime  of  a  cow  and  her  descendants,  the 
milk  would  give  enough  food  for  one  day  for 
410,440.  Hence,  in  the  interests  of  economy,  it  is 
wrong  to  kill  a  cow  and  eat  the  meat. 

We  smile  at  these  evidences  of  exuberant  im- 
agination, but  the  spirit  of  the  movement  appeals 
to  the  present  social  reformers  in  India.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  many  of  the  members  have  been  active 
among  those  agitators  against  British  rule  who 
have  used  bombs  to  voice  their  protests.  In  1898, 
the  Arya-Samaj  began  to  carry  out  the  old  Yedic 
system  of  education,  as  suggested  by  their  founder. 
At  an  early  age,  the  child  is  entrusted  to  his  guru 
or  spiritual  teacher,  who  becomes  to  him  more  than 
a  parent.  For  sixteen  years  the  child  is  under  in- 
struction, practically  cut  off  from  the  outer  world, 
and  is  then  to  be  sent  forth  as  a  missionary,  to 
propagate  the  Aryan  doctrines  throughout  India. 

The  ten  articles  of  the  creed  of  the  Arya-Samaj 
have  been  summarized  as  follows : 1 

1  "  Encyc.  Brit.,"  Vol.  II,  p.  713. 


Christianizing  Tendencies  259 

1.  The  source  of  all  true  knowledge  is  God. 

2.  God  is  all  truth,  all  knowledge,  all  bliss, 
boundless,  almighty,  just,  merciful,  unbegotten, 
without  beginning,  incomparable,  the  support  and 
Lord  of  all,  all-pervading,  omniscient,  imperishable, 
immortal,  eternal,  holy,  and  the  cause  of  the  uni- 
verse ;  worship  is  due  to  Him  alone. 

3.  The  medium  of  true  knowledge  is  the  Yedas. 
4  and  5.    The  truth  is  to  be  accepted  and  to  be- 
come the  guiding  principle. 

6.  The  object  of  the  Samaj  is  to  benefit  the 
world  by  improving  its  physical,  social,  intellectual, 
and  moral  conditions. 

7.  Love  and  justice  are  the  right  guides  of 
conduct. 

8.  Knowledge  must  be  spread. 

9.  The  good  of  others  must  be  sought. 

10.  In  general  interests  members  must  subordi- 
nate themselves  to  the  good  of  others  ;  in  personal 
interests  they  should  retain  independence. 

Article  6  comprehends  a  wide  programme  of 
reform,  and  includes  abstinence  from  spirituous 
liquors  and  animal  food,  physical  cleanliness  and 
exercise,  marriage  reform,  the  promotion  of  female 
education,  the  abolition  of  caste  and  idolatry. 

Parallel  to  these  movements,  which  show  the 
marks  of  contact  with  Christian  thought,  must  be 
mentioned  in  passing  the  revival  in  India,  under  the 
influence  of  nationalism,  of  the  worship  of  the  old 
gods.  The  worship  of  the  bloody  goddess  Kali, 
the  cult  of  Shivaji  Maharaj,  a  Maratha  chieftain 


260    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

who  humbled  the  alien  conquerors  of  Hindustan, 
and  the  exaltation  of  the  elephant-headed  god  of 
learning,  Ganesh.  These  are  being  revived,  and 
some  of  the  extreme  nationalists  are  even  glorify- 
ing polytheism  and  the  old  social  institutions, 
which  have  been  the  cause  of  so  many  of  India's 
sorrows.  The  battle  is  joined  between  the  old 
Hinduism,  the  new  reactionary  Hinduism,  the 
Westernized  Hinduism,  the  agnosticism  and  na- 
tionalism of  the  student  classes,  and  the  forces  of 
Christianity. 

The  last  of  the  great  religions,  the  modifications 
of  which,  under  Christian  influences,  must  be  men- 
tioned briefly,  is  Buddhism.  The  Buddhists,  both 
in  Ceylon  and  in  Japan,  have  felt  the  competition 
of  Christianity.  Here  they  have  been  aroused  to  a 
new  activity  and  have  sought  to  embody  in  Bud- 
dhism certain  Christian  elements.  In  the  other 
Buddhist  countries,  religion  seems  inactive  and  un- 
able to  resist  the  disintegrating  forces  at  work. 

In  Ceylon,  the  propagation  of  a  revived  and 
aggressive  Buddhism  is  making  rapid  progress. 
In  this  the  Buddhists  are  assisted  by  certain  Euro- 
pean converts  to  the  religion  founded  by  Gautama, 
who  are  standing  evidence  to  the  Buddhists  of  the 
superiority  of  Buddhism  to  Christianity.  One  of 
the  methods  used  in  this  work  is  education.  In 
Colombo  they  have  a  strong  school  of  high  grade, 
which  is  one  of  four  Buddhist  colleges  maintained 
in  Ceylon.     Throughout  the  island,  with  the  de- 


Christianizing  Tendencies  261 

velopment  of  compulsory  education,  the  Buddhists 
have  seen  their  chance  to  open  schools,  claim  the 
government  grant,  and  thus  secure  the  control  of 
the  education  of  thousands  of  boys  and  girls.  Not 
only  in  methods  but  in  doctrines,  they  are  imitating 
the  Christian  forces.  For  instance,  the  Buddhists 
speak  of  the  incarnation  of  Buddha,  and  even  of 
his  immaculate  conception.  They  comfort  the 
dying  by  saying  that,  when  they  have  crossed  the 
river  of  death,  the  Lord  Buddha  will  receive  them 
to  his  arms.  What  would  Gautama,  who  denied 
the  personality  of  God  and  the  existence  of  soul, 
have  said  to  such  amazing  heresy,  and  that,  too, 
among  those  who  regard  him  as  God  ?  It  testifies 
to  the  demand  of  the  soul  for  those  religious  ele- 
ments which  Buddhism  and  the  other  ethnic  re- 
ligions have  denied  but  which  Christianity  offers. 

In  Japan  the  revival  of  Buddhism  is  most  inter- 
esting. During  the  days  of  feudal  Japan,  Bud- 
dhism in  its  Japanese  form  was  practically  the 
state  religion,  and  its  priests  were  possessed  of 
honours  and  titles.  These  latter  were  done  away 
with  at  the  Restoration.  Buddhism  then  began  to 
feel  the  competition,  both  of  Shintoism,  which 
sought  to  become  the  state  religion,  and  of  Chris- 
tianity. The  latter's  representatives  very  quickly 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  samurai,  who  had 
recently  been  deprived  by  the  change  in  govern- 
ment of  their  former  position  and  duties.  Professor 
Takakusu  declares,  "  The  characteristically  broad- 
minded  nature  of  the  Japanese,  the  new  knowledge 


262    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

brought  back  by  the  priests  who  went  to  Europe 
and  America,  and  the  methods  and  attitude  taken 
by  the  Christians  in  their  missionary  work,  gave 
the  Buddhists  new  incentives  for  the  improvement 
of  their  organization,  doctrines,  and  philanthropic 
work."  ■  A  Buddhist  priest,  who  had  invited  Dr. 
DeForest  to  speak  in  his  temple  on  religion,  said 
that  he  was  hoping  to  visit  the  United  States  and 
England  to  thank  these  nations,  both  for  the  po- 
litical and  civil  blessings  which  had  come  from 
them,  and  also  for  the  influence  in  Japan  of  the 
Christian  religion,  which  had  revealed  to  the  priests 
their  faults  and  forced  them  to  reform  their  lives. 
This  priest  knew  the  facts.  Baron  Kato,  who  him- 
self believes  religion  to  be  a  superstition  useful 
only  for  the  lower  orders  of  mind,  delivered  an  ad- 
dress some  years  ago  on  Buddhist  Eeformation. 
He  declared,  "  The  men  who  have  the  doctrines  in 
charge  are  indeed  so  corrupt  that  they  themselves 
have  need  of  reformation.  They  are  absolutely 
unable  to  save  the  masses,  and,  moreover,  are  a 
peril  to  society.  .  .  .  They  stand  for  the  sal- 
vation of  the  people.  .  .  .  Yet  they  actually 
use  the  people  in  carrying  on  their  evil  lives.  .  .  . 
There  is  not  one  priest  that  devotes  himself  to  sav- 
ing the  masses.  They  are  all  corrupt."  While  this 
was  an  exaggeration,  the  Japanese  themselves 
admit  that  the  Buddhist  priesthood  was  rotten  to 
the  core,  and  that  men  who  had  taken  the  vows  of 

^kuma,  Count,  "Fifty  Years  of   Modern  Japan,"  Vol.  II, 
p.  73. 


Christianizing  Tendencies  263 

celibacy  were  themselves  patrons  of  brothels.  This 
is  now  changing  and  Buddhism  is  springing  into 
new  life. 

Buddhism  has  been  one  of  the  three  great  mis- 
sionary religions,  and  the  revived  Buddhism  of 
Japan  has  learned  that  in  missions  is  one  secret  of 
prosperity.  It  is,  therefore,  sending  missionaries 
to  China,  to  Korea,  to  Siberia,  to  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula, to  various  Oriental  ports,  to  Hawaii  and  the 
Pacific  Coast  States,  and  even  into  Thibet. 

The  Buddhists  in  Japan  have  adopted  some  of 
the  methods  of  Christianity.  They  have  stated 
times  for  preaching,  and  these  on  Sunday.  They 
have  pastoral  visitation,  street  preaching,  Buddhist 
Sunday-schools,  Young  Men's  Buddhist  Associa- 
tions, and  other  organizations  for  women  and  chil- 
dren. They  have  Buddhist  chaplains  who  work  in 
prisons  after  the  best  Western  methods.  They  hold 
services  in  factories,  in  the  army,  and  among  the 
poor.  They  maintain  orphan  asylums,  schools  for 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  charity  hospitals.  They 
aid  prisoners  and  have  started  free  lodging  houses. 
Temperance  and  other  lines  of  reformatory  work 
fall  within  their  programme.  They  observe  the 
birthday  of  Shaka,  the  Japanese  name  of  Gautama, 
the  Buddha,  much  as  Christians  do  Christmas. 

The  Buddhists  are  also  developing  education. 
As  Professor  Takakusu  puts  it,  "  Another  evidence 
of  the  Christian  influence  upon  Buddhism  is  shown 
in  the  establishment  of  sectarian  schools  of  various 
kinds,  and  especially  in  an  eagerness  to  start  schools 


264    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

for  girls  and  women." '  These  Buddhist  schools 
teach  science  and  philosophy,  as  well  as  their  own 
doctrines.  The  students  are  beginning  to  handle 
Buddhism  historically,  to  submit  it  to  free  and 
open  discussion,  and  a  certain  body  of  young  Bud- 
dhists even  consider  this  to  be  the  only  way  to 
reach  truth.  Comparative  religion  is  included  in 
the  curriculum.  Christian  teachers  are  employed 
and  the  Bible  is  actually  used  as  a  text  book.  The 
Buddhists  are  also  using  the  press  with  vigour,  and 
it  is  claimed  that  half  the  magazines  published  in 
Japan  to-day  are  Buddhist  in  tone.  If  so,  it  must 
be  that  of  the  neo-Buddhism,  for  the  ethical  tone 
of  all  the  literature  of  the  empire  to-day  is  de- 
clared to  be  Christian.  The  educated  Buddhist 
entirely  rejects  the  doctrine  of  transmigration, 
which  puts  him  on  a  level  with  a  snake,  a  bird, 
or  a  beast,  and  has  substituted  the  doctrine  of 
heredity. 

No  one  who  has  visited  the  new  Japanese  tem- 
ples can  fail  to  be  impressed  with  their  beauty 
and  good  taste.  There  is  a  new  temple  of  this  sort 
in  Seoul,  Korea,  which  we  visited  in  December, 
1908.  It  reminded  one  of  an  artistic  Kornan 
Catholic  Church.  In  the  new  Buddhism,  the  God- 
dess of  Mercy  takes  the  place  of  the  other  deities 
which  have  been  adopted  into  Buddhism,  and  in 
this  temple  she  is  represented  in  much  the  same 
position  as  a  statue  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  with  a 
halo  over  her  head.     The  air  of  the  place  was 

1  Okuma,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  II,  p.  74. 


Christianizing  Tendencies  265 

reverential  and  one  instinctively  felt  almost  like 
worshipping  in  such  a  house. 

This  is  characteristic  of  the  new  Buddhism. 
Buddhism  has  seen  the  need  in  Japan  of  a  religion 
which  can  solve  the  moral  and  social  problems  of 
the  people.  It  has  recognized  in  Christianity  a 
force  which  is  efficient  in  meeting  these  needs,  and 
which  has  succeeded  in  winning  the  support  of 
thousands  of  those  who  were  formerly  Buddhists. 
It  has  thought  that  by  adopting  its  methods  and 
some  of  its  doctrines  it  could  overcome  this  new 
competition  and  reinstate  itself  as  the  dominant 
religion  of  the  empire.  Little  does  it  realize  the 
real  source  of  power  in  Christianity.  A  prominent 
missionary  in  Japan  reported  recently  that  the 
Buddhists,  realizing  that  their  new  methods  are 
only  partially  successful,  are  now  seeking  to  dis- 
cover the  source  of  power  in  Christianity,  in  order 
that  this,  too,  may  be  adopted.  If  they  discover 
it,  we  can  assure  them  it  will  mean  the  forsaking 
of  Buddhism  and  the  acceptance  of  Christ.  Yet 
this  movement  in  the  Buddhism  of  Japan  both 
bears  a  strong  testimony  to  the  value  and  power 
of  Christianity  in  that  empire  and  gives  promise 
of  better  things  in  the  ethical  life  of  that  people. 

When  all  due  allowance  has  been  made  for  these 
changes  in  the  other  great  religions,  it  yet  remains 
true  that  they  are  powerless  to  meet  the  needs  of 
the  awakening  East.  A  sense  of  their  inadequacy 
is  dimly  perceived  by  the  leaders  of  Japan,  who  see 


266    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

that,  unless  that  country  shall  secure  a  religion 
which  can  grapple  with  and  solve  the  distressing 
moral  problems  now  before  them,  the  future  of  the 
country  is  gloomy.  The  earnest,  almost  frantic, 
efforts  recently  made  to  reestablish  Shintoism  as 
the  state  religion  testify  to  this  fact.  The  moral 
condition  is  so  far  from  what  it  should  be,  the  old 
sanctions  are  so  fast  being  removed,  and  the  stu- 
dents' agnosticism  is  so  patently  unable  to  make 
them  what  Japan  needs,  sane  moral  leaders,  that 
statesmen  are  turning  to  Shintoism,  the  religion 
that  embodies  the  highest  of  all  virtues  to  the 
Japanese,  patriotism,  to  save  them  from  the 
dreaded  approach  of  socialism  and  anarchism. 
Many  of  them  fear  Christianity,  because  it  is  from 
the  Christian  West  that  the  radical  social  theories 
came  which  inspired  the  recent  base  plot  against 
the  life  of  the  late  Emperor.  Those  who  do  not 
fear  Christianity  doubt  its  efficacy,  for  they  know 
that  in  the  West,  where  Christianity  has  had  its 
home  for  centuries,  the  social  and  even  the  moral 
conditions  are  perhaps  worse  in  some  respects  than 
those  in  Japan. 

Likewise,  the  leaders  of  Indian  thought  see  that 
a  revival  of  religion  must  come  if  their  plans  for  a 
self-governing  India  are  to  be  realized,  and  to  this 
end  they  are  reviving  some  of  the  less  attractive 
cults  of  that  congeries  of  rites  which  is  compre- 
hended under  the  single  term,  Hinduism. 

Why,  then,  can  it  be  claimed  that  in  Christianity, 
and  in  Christianity  alone,  these  great  countries 


Christianizing  Tendencies  267 

must  find  their  religion?  The  points  to  be 
mentioned  are  not  new  ;  they  are  old  ones,  with 
which  all  are  familiar  but  which  cannot  too  often 
be  emphasized. 

1.  The  Christians'  Father-God  is  the  only  god 
who  can  fully  meet  the  social  and  religious  needs 
of  humanity.  A  far-off,  cold,  impersonal  deity  can- 
not satisfy  the  human  heart.  Note  the  way  in 
which  the  Moslem  tends  to  exalt  Mohammed  to 
the  position  of  a  mediator  or  even  a  deity,  or  gives 
allegiance  to  other  incarnations  or  manifestations 
of  the  divine.  Note  how  the  Buddhist  turns  to  the 
Buddha  or  to  the  Goddess  of  Mercy  for  one  to 
whom  he  can  pray  and  from  whom  he  can  expect 
the  blessings  he  craves.  Hinduism  cares  little  for 
the  great  unifying,  impersonal  neuter  Brahama, 
and  gives  itself  up  to  the  worship  of  inferior  deities 
like  themselves.  And  what  a  conglomeration  of 
deities  these  people  have  conjured  up !  Creatures 
of  lust  and  of  passion,  monsters  of  cruelty;  or 
spineless  deities  who  are  willing  to  forgive  without 
repentance,  and  who  are  too  kind-hearted  to  punish. 
These  deities  are  vanishing  in  the  light  of  science, 
which  takes  away  the  philosophical  basis  upon 
which  they  rest.  Yet,  unless  something  else  can 
be  found  to  which  the  feelings  of  men  can  go  out 
in  passionate  devotion,  science  or  no  science,  the 
human  heart  will  go  back  to  these  old  gods,  with 
their  immoral  characters,  or  else  will  take  refuge 
in  blank  atheism.  Both  phenomena  are  visible 
upon  the  mission  field  to-day. 


268    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

To  people  who  are  thus  in  dire  need  of  God,  the 
Christian  comes  with  his  conception  of  a  God  who 
is  infinite,  and  yet  a  person  ;  who  is  justice,  and  yet 
is  love  ;  and  who  comes  into  the  most  intimate  fel- 
lowship with  His  children.  No  one  can  read  the 
results  of  the  inquiry  that  was  made  of  mission- 
aries in  1909-1910  regarding  the  Christian  message 
in  its  relation  to  the  non-Christian  religions,  with- 
out being  impressed  anew  with  the  power  of  the 
Christian  view  of  God,1  and  at  the  same  time  being 
forced  to  wonder  whether,  after  all,  we  of  the 
West  are  actually  letting  God  mean  to  us  all  that 
He  should  mean.  To  the  animist,  with  his  belief 
in  myriads  of  hostile  spirits,  to  the  Hindu,  with  his 
pantheon  of  disgusting  deities,  to  the  Buddhist,  with 
his  doubt  whether  there  be  any  personal  God,  and 
to    the    Moslem,  to  whom  God    is    an    arbitrary 

1  "  The  correspondent  who  has  most  minutely  discussed  the  pa- 
thology of  animistic  religion,  Dr.  Joh.  Warneck,  .  .  .  lays 
much  emphasis  on  the  fact  that  throughout  the  East  Indian  Ar- 
chipelago the  truth  in  the  Christian  Gospel  which  makes  the  first 
and  most  powerful  appeal  is  that  of  the  unity  and  omnipotence 
of  God.  His  testimony  is  confirmed  in  this  by  other  papers  from 
the  same  region  which  expressly  corroborate  the  witness  of  his 
volume ;  and  also  by  the  independent  testimony  of  Mr.  Camp, 
bell  Moody  from  Formosa.  .  .  .  The  same  testimony  comes 
from  Herr  Hahn,  who  labours  among  an  aboriginal  people  in 
India,  and  from  other  regions.  In  these  cases  it  seems  to  be  the 
monotheism  of  Christianity  that  at  the  first  forms  its  greatest 
power  of  appeal.  ...  To  the  animist  the  world  is  peopled  by 
many  unseen  beings,  who  are  envious  of  the  living,  and  who,  un- 
less propitiated,  strike  them  with  disease  or  calamity.  The  whole 
life  of  the  animist  therefore  lies  under  an  inoubus  of  terror.     He 


Christianizing  Tendencies  269 

Oriental  despot,  the  message  of  a  God  who  is  at 
once  powerful,  just,  righteous,  and  loving,  comes 
with  an  inspiration  which  we  little  realize.  And  it 
is  a  God  like  this  who  is  needed  to  solve  their  prob- 
lems. They  need  to  realize  the  universal  brother- 
hood of  the  race.  They  must  understand  that  a 
standard  of  absolute  holiness  is  to  be  placed  before 
them,  and  that  over  these  perplexing  problems  of 
life  there  stands  a  Being  of  infinite  love  who  wishes 
His  children  to  become  like  Him. 

2.  Christianity  has  an  adequate  doctrine  of  sin. 
It  possesses  a  means  of  salvation  which,  on  the  one 
hand,  is  available  for  each  individual,  however  weak 
or  ignorant,  and  which,  on  the  other  hand,  is  yet 
difficult  enough  to  call  out  the  best  efforts  of  the 
noblest  for  its  full  realization.  It  is  at  this  point 
that  these  other  religions,  even  the  best  of  them, 

may  propitiate  some,  but  he  cannot  propitiate  all.  Ancestor 
worship  is  at  best  a  palliative  but  not  a  full  deliverance,  and 
therefore  there  arises  an  intolerable  division  of  life. 

"  Hence  the  message  of  one  Almighty  God  comes  as  good  tid- 
ings of  great  joy.  Because  God  is  One,  it  is  possible  now  to  es- 
cape from  the  unbearable  division  of  life  which  polytheism  en- 
tails, and,  because  He  is  Almighty,  He  can  protect  the  worship- 
pers from  every  foe  and  lift  them  above  doubt  and  fear.  Have 
we  not  here  a  clue  to  the  rapid  spread  of  Islam  among  the  ani- 
mistic peoples  ? 

"The  climax  of  the  Christian  Gospel,  according  to  Warneck, 
is  that  this  God  is  love,  He  has  not  only  the  power  but  the  will 
to  protect  His  worshippers.  The  love  becomes  real,  it  becomes 
possible  to  realize  it  through  Christ." — Report  of  World  Mission- 
ary Conference,  1910,  Vol.  IV,  p.  218  et  seq. 

"  The  first  thing  in  missionary  preaching  which'strikes  and  at- 


270    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

fail.  The  Hindu  and  the  Buddhist  make  a  man's 
lot  the  result  of  his  deeds  in  a  previous  existence. 
While  they  recognize  the  need  of  punishment  for 
sins, — although  these  may  be  merely  the  violation 
of  ceremonial  law, — yet  they  put  so  great  a  burden 
upon  the  individual  that  he  throws  it  off  and  takes 
refuge  in  a  blind  fatalistic  resignation.  Unless  a 
religion  inculcates  a  keen  sense  of  sin,  for  which 
the  individual  is  personally  accountable  and  from 
the  power  of  which  he  may  and  can  escape,  it  will 
not  secure  clean  living.  And,  after  all,  the  great 
problems  of  life  have  their  root  in  wrong  relations 
to  God  and  man  which  cannot  be  called  anything 
else  than  sin.  At  this  point  every  other  religion 
fails,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  unanimity 
with  which  the  missionaries  testify  that  it  is  only 
as  men  come  to  know  Christ  that  they  begin  to  feel 
a  sense  of  sin  which  leads  to  repentance  and  reform. 
Through  Christianity,  men  come  to  know  them- 
selves as  they  are,  to  realize  their  relations  to  God 
and  man,  and  to  make  efforts  to  realize  this  ideal. 

tracts  a  Chinese  is  the  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  God,  being  in 
strong  contrast  with  the  multitude  of  gods  whom  he  himself  wor- 
ships. Monotheism  appeals  to  him  as  being  eminently  reason- 
able, and  he  listens  willingly  to  the  statement  of  God's  glorious 
perfections — His  holiness,  righteousness,  and  love.  He  is  inter 
ested,  perhaps  attracted,  while  the  preacher  sets  forth  this  all- 
mighty,  all-seeing,  and  everywhere-present  God  as  the  creator 
and  preserver  of  all  things  and  the  giver  of  all  good.  The  at- 
traction deepens  as  he  hears  of  God's  fatherhood,  His  love  for  all, 
and  providence  over  all.  It  is  this  great  doctrine  of  the  Divine 
unity  combined  with  the  Divine  love  which  attracts  the  immense 
majority  of  Chinese."— Ibid.,  p.  58. 


Christianizing  Tendencies  271 

3.  This  leads  to  a  third  point,  namely,  that  in 
Jesus  Christ  Christianity  has  the  only  perfect  ex- 
ample of  what  man  should  become,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  only  perfect  manifestation  of  God.  It  is 
an  interesting  and  noteworthy  fact  that,  next  to 
the  Christian  doctrine  of  God,  and  often  taking 
precedence  of  it,  the  missionaries  claim  that  Christ 
is  the  greatest  asset  Christianity  possesses.  Even 
if  Meredith  Townsend  did  claim  years  ago  that 
Christ  appeals  to  us  because  of  moral  characteristics 
which  we  do  not  possess,  and  that  for  this  same 
reason  He  does  not  appeal  to  the  Indian,  who  is 
strong  at  the  same  points  as  Christ,  the  fact  re- 
mains, upon  unimpeachable  testimony,  that  Christ 
does  appeal  to  all,  Moslem,  Hindu,  Confucianist, 
Buddhist,  and  Shintoist.1  If  only  Christ  would  not 
be  so  exclusive  in  His  claims  and  would  consent 
merely  to  occupy  a  niche  in  the  pantheons  of  the 
nations,  He  would  be  enthroned  everywhere  within 

1  From  China  comes  this  testimony  : 

14  The  beautiful  and  perfect  life  of  Jesus,  His  tender  forgiving 
spirit,  His  love  even  for  His  enemies,  and  His  high  moral  teach- 
ing impress  all  who  hear  or  read  the  wonderful  story.  '  Many 
scholars,'  writes  the  Rev.  C.  G.  Sparham,  'give  Him  what  is 
from  their  point  of  view  high  honour,  and  say  that  He  is  one  of, 
and  perhaps  the  greatest  of,  the  world's  four  sages — Socrates, 
Buddha,  Confucius,  Christ. '  His  sufferings,  death,  and  sacrifice 
for  us  men  make  a  strong  appeal  even  to  the  heathen,  while  to 
the  Christians  the  loving,  suffering  Christ  is  the  power  that  grips 
them.  '  The  centre  and  core,  the  one  unique  and  supreme  ele- 
ment, the  Cross, '  writes  Archdeacon  Moule,  '  possesses  the  great- 
est and  overmastering  power  of  appeal.'  The  Cross,  however,  is 
now,  as  in  the  early  days  of  Christianity  and  for  the  same  reasons, 


272     Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

a  few  years.  His  ethical  teaching  and  the  quality 
of  His  life  appeal  to  all  men  of  every  race  and 
creed.  To  Him  every  one  who  desires  an  ideal  is 
inevitably  drawn. 

In  a  remarkable  address  given  in  December, 
1911,  in  New  York,  that  noble  Japanese  Christian, 
Mr.  Uyemura,  described  how  the  Shinto  party  in 
Japan  is  revising  the  list  of  heroes  in  whose  honour 
shrines  are  erected.  Some  are  rejected  for  one 
reason,  others  for  another,  the  cause  in  each  case 
being  the  fact  that  their  characters  do  not  har- 
monize with  present  ethical  standards.  If  this 
process  is  carried  through  to  the  end,  Mr.  Uyemura 
declared  most  impressively,  each  one  of  their  he- 
roes, saints,  and  deities  must  be  rejected,  and  there 
will  be  but  one  person  to  whom  they  can  turn,  the 
unique  Galilean,  the  peerless  Son  of  God.  As  one 
studies  the  characters  of  the  holy  men  of  other  re- 
ligions, of  Mohammed,  of  Krishna,  and  the  other 
unspeakable  deities  of  India,  the  marvel  is,  not  that 
the  moral  conditions  are  as  bad  as  they  are,  but  that 
the  innate  moral  sense  has  kept  the  mass  of  the 

an  offense,  yet  now  as  then  it  is  the  power  of  God  unto  salvation. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Rev.  P.  J.  Maclagan  of  Swatow  says : 
'  The  character  of  Jesus  has  not  much  place  in  the  primary  ap- 
peal ;  nor  has  the  Cross  of  Christ,  except  as  the  means  of  procur- 
ing forgiveness  and  so  of  Heaven.' 

"  More  attractive,  perhaps,  is  Christ  as  a  present  Saviour  from 
sin,  not  from  sin  as  guilt  merely,  but  from  sins,  evils,  vices,  espe- 
cially those  which  harm  men  in  body  and  soul,  for  most  Chinese 
think  more  of  the  power  of  sin  than  of  its  guilt." — Report  of 
World  Missionary  Conference,  1910,  Vol.  IV,  p.  59. 


Christianizing  Tendencies  273 

people  from  falling  to  the  point  where  they  should 
be  with  such  examples  held  before  them.  It  is  in 
the  comparatively  pure  character  of  the  Buddha 
that  Buddhism  has  one  secret  of  its  strength,  and 
yet  how  the  Buddha  pales  before  the  Christ !  In 
His  purity  of  character,  in  His  hatred  of  sin,  in  His 
utter  devotion  to  men,  and  in  His  willingness  to  go 
to  the  utmost  that  they  might  be  His,  we  see  the 
only  one  who  can  become  the  exemplar  of  the  na- 
tions in  these  days  of  transition  and  growth. 

4.  Christianity  has  a  social  gospel.  Here  is 
another  point  at  which  all  other  religions  fail.  The 
Moslem,  if  he  is  true  to  his  faith,  believes  that  in  the 
Koran  and  the  traditions  are  embodied  the  religious 
and  social  codes  that  must  endure  for  all  time.  The 
Moslem  civilization  is  what  it  is  because  of  this  be- 
lief. Look  at  Turkey,  look  at  Arabia,  look  at  the 
countries  of  North  Africa,  which  once  were  lighted 
by  Christ  and  civilization,  if  one  would  see  how 
Islam  would  solve  the  social  problems.  It  is  be- 
cause the  enlightened  Moslems  realize  this  fatal 
weakness  in  their  religion  that  they  are  attempting 
to  graft  upon  their  Islamic  theology  a  Christian 
view  of  society.  This  is  bound  to  fail.  Hinduism 
is  patently  unable  to  solve  its  social  problems,  as 
enlightened  Hindus  are  forced  to  admit  when,  as 
some  of  them  do,  they  advise  the  outcastes  to  become 
Christians  as  the  only  avenue  through  which  they 
may  pass  into  manhood.  Confucianism  is  preemi- 
nently a  social  system,  and  it  is  as  far  above  Hindu- 
ism as  Confucius  was  above  Krishna.     Yet  even 


274    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

here  it  is  lacking  in  the  positive  vital  note,  and 
China  has  discovered  to  her  sorrow  that  Confucian- 
ism cannot  make  her  efficient  in  these  days  of 
competition  with  the  West.  The  desire  to  correct 
these  weaknesses  is  perhaps  the  chief  purpose  which 
lies  back  of  the  present  overturn  in  that  most  an- 
cient and  most  populous  of  the  nations.  Even 
Japan,  which  has  sought  all  through  the  West  for 
the  secret  of  social  efficiency  and  has  corrected  the 
most  glaring  inequalities  in  her  midst,  finds,  as  has 
been  noted,  that  something  is  lacking.  That  some- 
thing Christianity  can  supply.  In  its  doctrine  of 
universal  brotherhood,  in  its  Golden  Kule,  and 
above  all  in  the  loving  devotion  to  Christ,  who  en- 
trusted His  disciples  with  the  completion  of  His 
own  work,  Christianity  has  the  only  social  gospel 
which  can  solve  these  world  problems.  This  leads 
to  the  last  point. 

5.  Christianity  is  the  only  religion  which  pos- 
sesses a  sufficient  dynamic  to  make  its  ethical  stand- 
ards realizable.  One  of  the  sad  and  yet  encourag- 
ing features  in  that  recent  study  of  the  non-Chris- 
tian religions,  to  which  reference  has  more  than 
once  been  made,  is  the  realization  that  is  coming 
over  Moslem,  Hindu,  Buddhist,  and  Confucianist 
alike,  namely,  that  their  moral  precepts  may  be 
most  admirable,  but  they  lack  power  to  realize  them 
in  their  lives.  It  is  because  at  this  point  Christian- 
ity is  strong  that  it  is  bound  to  win.  In  its  new 
birth,  by  which  man's  nature  is  raised,  the  centre 
of  his  life  is  changed,  and  he  becomes  literally  a 


Christianizing  Tendencies  275 

new  man  in  Christ  Jesus,  Christianity  has  another 
unique  claim  to  distinction.  Here,  too,  the  testi- 
mony is  unmistakable.  It  is  the  lives  of  the  mis- 
sionaries and  the  changed  lives  of  the  native  Chris- 
tians that,  above  everything  else,  commend  Chris- 
tianity to  outsiders  and  make  them  willing  to  in- 
vestigate the  claims  of  Christ  to  their  allegiance. 
The  other  religions  look  for  salvation  by  magic,  or 
by  the  performance  of  impossible  tasks,  or  entrust  it 
to  the  working  of  some  transcendent  law  like  karma. 
Whatever  it  is,  they  divorce  religion  and  ethics, 
while  Christianity  makes  the  Christian  into  a  Christ- 
like man. 

Yes,  from  these  five  considerations  and  from 
others  which  could  be  adduced,  there  are  two  inevi- 
table conclusions  :  these  other  religions  are  inade- 
quate and  insufficient ;  Christianity  is  adequate.  It 
is  both  sufficient  and  efficient.  This  being  so,  what 
is  the  duty  of  the  Church  at  this  hour  ?  It  is  noth- 
ing less  than  the  immediate  propagation  and  natu- 
ralization of  Christianity  throughout  the  world. 

There  have  been  many  crises  in  history.  Doubt- 
less, in  all  ages,  there  have  been  those  who  have 
claimed  that  their  age  was  the  most  critical  time 
that  the  world  had  known.  It  is  easy  to  make  this 
claim ;  it  is  more  difficult  to  justify  it.  Hence,  one 
ventures  with  some  hesitation  the  declaration  that 
the  immediate  future  is  one  of  the  most  strategic 
periods  in  history.  We  have  heard  for  many  years 
of  the  crisis  of  missions.  There  have  been  many 
such  crises,  but  the  present  has  been  characterized 


276    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

as  a  crisis  of  crises.  This  is  no  mere  f  ulmination 
of  brainless  enthusiasts,  but  the  deliberate  opinion 
of  some  of  the  brainiest  and  sanest  men  of  the 
world.  This  is  the  conclusion  to  which  the  mem- 
bers of  Commission  I  of  the  Edinburgh  Conference 
came  after  they  had  completed  the  most  compre- 
hensive study  ever  made  of  the  situation  in  the  non- 
Christian  world.  Great  forces,  which  have  been  at 
work  for  generations,  have  now  united  in  the  pro- 
duction of  a  situation  that  has  never  been  equalled.1 
This  book  has  been  a  study  of  some  of  these 
forces  and  their  results.  It  has  been  shown  how 
education  has  been  undermining  ignorance,  how 
industry  has  transformed  the  economic  situation, 
how  new  ethical  ideals  have  found  lodgment  in  the 
hearts  of  leaders  throughout  Asia  and  in  parts  of 
Africa,  and  how  these  have  all  resulted  in  the 
simultaneous  unrest  and  political  change,  the  latest 
phase  of  which  has  been  the  turning  of  the  most 
populous  empire  of  the    world  into  a    republic. 


1  "  The  Commission,  after  studying  the  facts  and  after  taking 
counsel  with  the  leaders  of  the  missionary  forces  of  the  Church  at 
home  and  abroad,  expresses  its  conviotion  that  the  present  is  the 
time  of  all  times  for  the  Church  to  undertake  with  quickened 
loyalty  and  sufficient  forces  to  make  Christ  known  to  all  the  non- 
Christian  world. 

u  It  is  an  opportune  time.  Never  before  has  the  whole  world- 
field  been  so  open  and  so  accessible.  Never  before  has  the  Chris- 
tian Church  faced  such  a  combination  of  opportunities  among 
both  primitive  and  cultured  peoples. 

"It  is  a  critical  time.  The  non-Christian  nations  are  under- 
going great  changes.     Far-reaching  movements — national,  racial, 


Christianizing  Tendencies  277 

Japan,  Korea,  China,  Siam,  India,  Persia,  Turkey, 
Egypt,  North  Africa,  South  Africa, — these  are  but 
some  of  the  places  in  which  just  now  the  old  is 
giving  place  to  the  new.  The  Christian  missionary 
has  been  one  of  the  most  prominent  factors  in  pro- 
ducing this  change.  The  Church  has  been  praying 
for  the  day  when  heathenism  should  be  supplanted 
and  when  the  nations  should  become  brotherhoods. 
That  day  is  upon  us.  The  whole  social  and  polit- 
ical organization  is  in  the  process  of  transformation. 
It  has  been  cast  into  the  melting  pot.  Everything 
is  in  a  state  of  flux,  but  will  soon  solidify.  Shall 
the  new  mould  be  Christian  or  atheistic  ?  That  is 
the  question  before  the  Church  to-day,  and  it  is  a 
question  that  can  be  answered  only  by  the  Church. 
Now  is  the  day  when  the  Church  can  move  into 
this  new  East,  can  plant  Christian  institutions 
where  Christ  has  never  yet  been  proclaimed,  can 
show  how  Christianity  can  solve  these  problems, 
can  furnish  Christian  leaders  for  these  new  move- 
ments,   and    can    put   a  truly    Christian  impress 

social,  economic,  religious — are  shaking  the  non-Christian  nations 
to  their  foundations.  These  nations  are  still  plastic.  Shall  they 
set  in  Christian  or  pagan  moulds  ?  Their  ancient  faiths,  ethical 
restraints,  and  social  orders  have  been  weakened  or  abandoned. 
Shall  our  sufficient  faith  fill  the  void  ?  The  spirit  of  national 
independence  and  racial  patriotism  is  growing.  Shall  this  be- 
come antagonistic  or  friendly  to  Christianity  ?  There  have  been 
times  when  the  Church  confronted  crises  as  great  as  those  before 
it  now  on  certain  fields;  but  never  before  has  there  been  such 
a  synchronizing  of  crises  in  all  parts  of  the  world." — Report  of 
World  Missionary  Conference,  1910,  Vol.  I,  p.  362. 


278    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

upon  the  China,  the  India,  the  Persia,  and  the 
Turkey  which  will  soon  emerge.  The  doors  are 
open  now.  The  people  are  more  aware  of  their 
need  than  before.  They  feel  that  they  are  passing 
through  a  crisis.  A  helping  hand  now  is  doubly 
welcome.  Take  China  as  an  example.  The  revo- 
lution was  led  by  men  trained  in  the  West.  They 
have  Christian  ideals.  Some  of  the  most  promi- 
nent are  themselves  Christians.  The  Christian  and 
Western-educated  Chinese,  who  have  been  waiting 
for  years  for  their  chance,  are  now  stepping  to  the 
front.  They  are  favourably  disposed  towards 
Christianity.  Now  is  the  time,  as  they  are  work- 
ing out  their  problems,  to  make  certain,  for  in- 
stance, that  the  new  education  which  China  must 
develop  shall  not  be  anti-religious,  as  is  that  of 
Japan.  If  the  Christian  forces  fail  to  do  this  now, 
the  result  will  be  that  the  younger  generation  of 
Chinese  will  be  educated  in  an  irreligious  atmos- 
phere, and  a  Christian  education  will  be  so  rele- 
gated to  the  background  that  it  will  exert  a  rela- 
tively small  influence,  whereas  it  will  be  more 
needed  than  ever.  The  doors  are  open.  How  long 
they  will  remain  so,  God  only  knows. 

If,  however,  the  Church  is  to  make  its  impress 
upon  these  countries,  it  must  not  go  as  a  foreign 
body.  A  foreign  religion  will  never  be  welcomed 
by  these  peoples,  in  whom  the  sense  of  nationality 
is  awaking,  and  who  are  very  jealous  of  anything 
that  looks  like  foreign  domination.  It  is  not  the 
Christianity  which  is  propagated  primarily  by  the 


Christianizing  Tendencies  279 

missionary,  but  that  which  has  been  naturalized 
and  is  under  native  leadership  that  will  prevail.  It 
is  because  Christianity  in  Japan  has  come  under 
Japanese  leadership,  that  the  intensely  patriotic 
spirit  of  Japan,  which  is  as  powerful  now  as  it  was 
two  decades  ago,  has  almost  ceased  to  be  anti- 
Christian.  What  has  come  to  pass  in  Japan  and  in 
parts  of  Turkey  is  bound  to  come  very  soon  in 
China  and  presently  also  in  India  ;  and  unless  the 
Church  is  willing  to  pass  over  into  other  hands  the 
leadership,  she  will  fail  in  her  duty  only  one  degree 
less  than  if  she  refuses  to  enter  the  open  doors. 

The  two  greatest  obstacles  to  Christianity  in  the 
East  to-day  are  the  unworthy  lives  of  many  nomi- 
nal Christians,  resident  in  the  East,  and  the  failure 
of  Christianity  to  solve  the  social  problems  at 
home.  The  leaders  of  Japan,  of  China,  and  of 
India  know  about  our  red-light  districts,  about  our 
lynchings,  about  our  strikes,  about  our  bomb  out- 
rages, about  the  industrial  injustice  that  is  found 
all  through  our  country,  about  our  tenement  houses, 
and  about  our  poverty  and  crime.  The  outrages 
upon  Japanese  residents  in  our  Pacific  Coast  States 
a  short  time  ago  almost  paralyzed  the  arms  of  the 
missionaries,  who  were  working  among  people  who 
resented  these  unjust  acts.  It  is  true  that  the 
churches  must  Christianize  the  world  in  order  to 
save  America,  for  without  the  world  vision  they 
will  neglect  the  task  at  their  doors.  It  is  equally 
true  that  they  must  Christianize  the  life  of  America 
or  they  cannot  save  the  world.    As  it  is  the  lives 


280    Sociological  Progress  in  Mission  Lands 

of  the  Christians  abroad  which  commend  Christian- 
ity to  individuals  yonder,  so  it  is  the  life  of  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  which  will  com- 
mend Christianity  to  Japan,  China,  and  India  ;  and 
every  step  of  progress  here  towards  the  better  real- 
ization of  the  Kingdom  of  God  will  make  so  much 
easier  the  realization  of  the  ideals  of  Jesus  for 
Asia  and  Africa. 

Christians  rejoice  in  the  forward  movements  at 
home.  They  take  courage  because  of  all  those 
steps  abroad  which  this  book  has  sought  to  trace. 
The  two  are  more  closely  related  than  is  often 
realized.  The  task  before  the  Church  is  the  re- 
newed dedication  of  itself  to  its  Master  and  to  His 
work  of  making  the  nations  of  the  world  the  na- 
tions of  our  God  and  His.  This  study  has  failed  of 
its  purpose  if  it  has  not  revealed  the  need  of  the 
world,  the  power  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  impera- 
tive duty  of  obedience  to  His  last  command.  May 
the  Church  see  the  world  through  the  eyes  of  the 
crucified  and  risen  Lord,  who  was  Himself  a  man  of 
the  Orient,  all  of  whose  active  life  was  passed  upon 
the  soil  of  Asia,  and  who  died  that  Orient  and  Oc- 
cident might  alike  submit  to  His  sway  and  be  trans- 
formed into  His  likeness. 


Bibliography 


No  attempt  has  been  made  to  prepare  a  full  bibli- 
ography of  the  subjects  treated  in  this  book.  It  has 
seemed  wise,  however,  to  list  a  few  of  the  authorities 
which  have  been  used  in  its  preparation  and  to  which 
those  interested  in  pursuing  the  subject  further  may 
be  referred.  As  the  book  concerns  itself  only  with 
social  movements  of  the  last  hundred  years  or  so, 
volumes  dealiug  with  the  social  influence  of  early  and 
medieval  Christianity  have  been  omitted.  The  books 
are  arranged  according  to  chapters. 

General 

Dennis,  James  S.,  "  Christian  Missions  and  Social 
Progress. "     3  vols.     New  York,  1897-1906. 

Dennis,  James  S.,  et  al.y  "World  Atlas  of  Christian 
Missions. "     New  York,  1911. 

Chapter  I 

Eddy,  Sherwood,  "  India  Awakening."    New  York, 

1912. 
Jones,  J.  P.,  "  India's  Problem,  Krishna  or  Christ." 

New  York,  1903. 

Chapter  II 

" Statesman's  Year  Book."     London,  1913.   Macmil- 

lan,  New  York. 
"  China  Mission  Year  Book,  1911."    Shanghai,  1911. 

M.  E.  M.,  New  York. 
"  Japan  Year  Book,  1912."    Tokyo,  1911. 

281 


282  Bibliography 

Chapter  III 

Chintamani,  C.  Y.,  "  Indian  Social  Beforni."  Mad- 
ras, 1901. 

Douglas,  E.  K.,  " Society  in  China."     London,  1894. 

Fuller,  Mrs.  M.  B.,  "  Wrongs  of  Indian  Woman- 
hood."    New  York,  1900. 

Jones,  J.  P.,  op.  cit. 

Murdoch,  Eev.  John,  "  Papers  on  Indian  Social  Ee- 
form."     Madras,  1892. 

Smith,  Arthur  H.,  "  Chinese  Characteristics."  New 
York,  1894. 

"  Village  Life  in  China."     New  York,  1899. 

Wilkins,  W.  J.,  "  Modern  Hinduism. "  London, 
1900. 

Chapter  IV 

Blaikie,  W.  G.,  "  Personal  Life  of  David  Living- 
stone. > '    New  York,  1880. 

Fuller,  Mrs.  M.  B.,  op.  cit. 

Griffis,  W.  E.,  "The  Mikado's  Empire."  New 
York,  1876. 

Jones,  J.  P.,  op.  cit. 

Chapter  V 

Bhattacharya,  J.  N.,  "Hindu  Castes  and  Sects." 
Calcutta,  1896. 

Chintamani,  C.  Y.,  op.  cit. 

Low,  Sidney,  "  A  Vision  of  India."     London,  1906. 

Morse,  H.  B.,  "The  Trade  and  Administration  of 
the  Chinese  Empire."     Shanghai,  1908. 

Eichard,  L.,  "  Comprehensive  Geography  of  the  Chi- 
nese Empire,"  trans.  M.  Kennelly,  S.  J. 
Shanghai,  1908. 

Smith,  A.  H.,  op.  cit. 

"China  Mission  Year  Book,"  issues  for  1910,  1911, 
1912.     M.  E.  M.,  New  York. 


Bibliography  283 

"  Christian  Movement  in  Japan,"  for  1910.     Tokyo, 

1910.     M.  E.  M.,  New  York. 
"  Japan  Year  Book,  1912. "     Tokyo,  1911. 
"  Encyclopaedia    Britannica,"    11th    ed.      Articles, 

"Caste,"  "Japan,  Domestic  History. " 

Chapter  VI 

Murdoch,  Eev.  John,  "Papers  on  Indian  Beligious 
Keform."    Madras,  1894. 

Okuma,  Count,  Editor,  "Fifty  Years  of  Modern 
Japan."     London,  1909. 

World  Missionary  Conference,  1910.  Eeport  of 
Commission  IV.     Edinburgh,  1910. 

Wherry,  E.  M.,  et  al.  editors,  "Islam  and  Mis- 
sions."    New  York,  1911. 

Zwemer,  S.  M.,  et  al.  editors,  "The  Mohammedan 
World  of  To-day."    New  York,  1906. 

Contemporary  Revieio,  August,  1893. 

"Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  11th  ed.  Articles, 
"  Arya  Samaj,"  "  Brahma  Samaj,"  "  Keshub 
Chunder  Sen,"  "  Earn  Mohan  Boy." 


Index 


Adi-Samaj,  254 
Africa : 

Cannibalism,  149 

Christian  leaders,  174 

Education,  Industrial,  69 
Missionary,  37,  55 

Human  sacrifices,  1461". 

Legal  system,  162 

Medical  Missions,  71 

Ordeals,  162 

Polygamy,  97,  119 

Slavery,  164  f. 

Witchcraft,  162 

Woman,  97,  119 
Africa,  British  South : 

Education,  Mission : 
Effect  of,  63 
Objections  to,  answered, 
63,  64 
Africa,   Eastern    Central,   slave- 
trade  suppressed,  167 
Agha  Khan,  243 
Aligarh  College,  242 
Allahabad  Christian  College,  67 
Amanzimtote  Seminary,  63,  70 
Amoy,  Infanticide,  152  f 
Anglo- Mohammedan    College, 

242 
Animist,  268 
Anti-Opium  League,  176 
Arya  Samaj,  256,  258  f. 
Assam  : 

Human  sacrifices,  146 

Slavery,  164 

Temperance,  145 
Assiut  College,  58 
Attainments,  limit  change,  24 
Azariah,  Bishop,  174 


Baby-towers,  153 
Bakin,  182 


Balkan  War,  230 

Baroda  women,  marriage  age,  100 

Basel  Mission,  65  f. 

Bataks,  Women  of,  116 

Batelas,  Cannibalism,  149 

Bechuanaland,    Temperance    in, 

Beirut,  58,  75 

Bentinck,    Lord,   abolished   sati, 

126 
Blaikie,  quoted,  re    Livingstone 

and  slave-trade,  166 
Blind     and      Deaf,     Missionary 

Schools  for,  54 
Boarding     Schools,     Missionary, 

53»55 

Bombay,  Plague  statistics,  74 
Bombay  Social  Conference,  125 
Bose,  Miss  C.  M.,  133 
Brahman,  192,  196 

Kulin,  103 
Brahma-Samaj,  2486°. 

Marriage  age,  126 

Vid.      Ravi     Mohan     Roy, 
Debetidra    Nath     Tagore, 
Keshub  Chunder  Sen 
Brahma-Samaj  of  India,  254 
Brown,  S.  R.,  222 
Buddhism : 

Ethics  of  priests,  14 1,  262 

Pessimism,  23 

Sway  of,  235 
Buddhism,  Reformed,  260  ff. 

Ceylon,  260  f. 

Japan,  261  ff. 
Bule  women,  97 

Bulgaria,     Missionary     influence 
on,  39 

Robert  College,  influence  of, 

58 
Burma,  Temperance,  145 


285 


286 


Index 


Burma,    Upper,    Human    sacri- 
fices, 146 
Busoga,  Sleeping  sickness,  22 

Cannibalism,  148  f. 

Canton,  Fight  against  gambling, 

178 
Carey,  William : 

Educational  work,  52 

re  female  infanticide,  155 

re  sati,  126 
Caste,  191  ff. 

B  rah  mans,  position  of,  1 96 

Divisions,  192 

Functions  of,  193,  199 

Multiplication,  192  f. 

Obstacle  to  industrial  educa- 
tion, 69 

Outcastes,  197,  213 

Relations  of  castes,  195  ff. 

Results,  198 

Rules,  194  ff.,  212  f. 

Penalties   for  violating, 
198,  212 

Spirit  of,  194 

Statistics  of,  192 

Sudras,  197 

Weakening  of,  211 
Ceylon,  Buddhism,  260  f. 
Changes,  Social : 

Causes  of,  20 

Extent  in  Orient,  25  ff. 

Limitations,  21 

Slowness  of,  24 
Character : 

Limits  change,  24 

New  types  under  Christian- 
ity, 174  ff. 

Relative  permanence,  24 
Chauhans,  Infanticide,  154 
Cheh-kiang,  Infanticide,  152 
China  : 

Christians,  171,  174 

Constitution,  reformed  Man- 
chu,  225 

Provisional    republican, 
226 

Cooperation,  211 


Divorce,  no 

Education,  government,  57, 

85 

Industrial,  70,  86 

Schools  provided  by  de- 
cree of  1903,  81  ff. 
Education,  Missionary,  54  f. 

Government  and,  56 

The  missionary  and,  37 
Ethics,  140 

Family,   character    and  au- 
thority, 209  f. 
Family  life,  108  ff.,  ill 
Foot-binding,       III,       179, 

180  ff. 
Fu,  206  f. 
Gambling,  178  f. 
Girls'  orphan  asylums,  153 
Government,  205  ff. 

Changes  in,  223  ff. 
listen,  205 
Individual  in,  36 
Infanticide,  female,  151  ff. 
Intemperance  suppressed, 

176 
Marriage  customs,  107  f. 

Among  Christians,  128 
Medical  missions,  71,  75 
Medical  progress  and  train- 
ing, 89 
Opium,  176  ff. 
Polygamy,  109 
Railway  development,  effect 

of,  27 
Reform,  constitutional,  223  ff. 

Judicial,  227 

Prison,  228 
Religions  of,  23 
Responsibility,  corporate,  2 10 
Revolution,  224 

Women  in,  129  f. 
Selfishness  in,  172 
Self-torture,  160 
Slavery,  164 

Social  organization,  204  ff. 
Standard  of  living,  87 
Suicide,  158 
Unity,  increase  in,  27 


Index 


287 


Village,  government  of,  206 
Widows,  110 
Woman,  106  ff. 

Christian,  128 
Clubs,  129 
Daily  paper,  129 
Foot-binding,  III 
Progress,  128  f. 
Sale  of,  107 
Schools  for,  129 
The  new,  130 
Wives,  rights  of,  108 
Vid.  Foot-binding 
Christ : 

Appeal  of,  271 
Social  influence,  20 
Christian   community,   effects   of 

poverty,  49 
Christianity  : 

Ethics  of,  142  f. 
Naturalization  of,  278 
Only  hope  of  Orient,  266  ff. 
Strength,  elements  of,  267  ff. 
vs.  advanced  religions,  234 
animistic  religions,  233  f. 
Christians,  Native  : 
Africa,  174 
China,  174 
India,  133,  174 
Japan,  222 

New  types  of  character,  I74ff. 
Relative    immunity    from 

plague,  74 
Attitude  towards  vices  : 
Vid.   Cannibalism,    Infanti- 
cide, Truthfulness,  etc. 
Chuckerbutty,  Miss  S.,  134 
Chu-Gakko,  77 

Church,  Duty  of,  46,  231,  277 
Cilicia,  Christians  and  plague,  74 
City  problem,  28 
Class  spirit,  191 
Climate  effects,  21 
Coillard,  Pastor,  164,  167 
Colleges,  Missionary,  53  f. 
Combinations,  Industrial,  19 
Commerce,   Social   influence   of, 
26  f. 


Confucianism,  23 
Congo  Valley  : 

Human  sacrifices,  146 

Ordeals,  163 
Creek  Town,  Vid.  Old  Calabar 
Cromer,  Lord,  33,  241  note 
Crowther,  Bishop,  149 

Dayanand  Saraswati,  256  f. 
Debendra  Nath  Tagore,  250 

Beliefs,  250  f. 
Dependence,  18 
Ding  Li  Mei,  174 
Divorce,  no,  113 
Doshisha  students'  record,  59 
Du  Bose,  Dr.,  176 
Dutt,  Miss  Toru,  134 
Dutt,  R.  C,  33 

Economic     Life,    Relation    to 

soil,  22 
Education  : 

Effect  of,  27,  41 

Relation    of   missionary   to, 

37,39 

Education,  Christian,  92  f. 
Education,  Government,  77  ff. 

China,  81  ff. 

India,  80 

Japan,  77  ff. 
Education,  Industrial,  86 

Vid.  Africa,  India,  etc. 
Education,  Mission : 

Elementary,  54,  55 

Government,  relation  to,  56  f. 

High  Schools,  53,  55 

Industrial,  65  ff. 

Medical,  54,  75  f. 

Objections  to,  answered,  63  f. 

Statistics  of,  536°. 

Women,  114  f. 
Education,  Secular,  45,  52 
Elgin,  Lord,  Anti-nautch   action, 

187 
England,    Industrial    and    social 

changes,  20 
Environment,  Influence  of,  17 
Eta,  Vid.  Japan 


288 


Index 


Ethical  Ideals,  Vid.  Ideals,  Eth- 
ical 
Ethical  Standards,  36 
Ethics : 

Difficulty  of  comparison,  138 
Divorced  from  religion,  140 
Effect  of  Christianity  upon, 

142  f. 
Vid.    China ,  Japan,  India, 
Islam,  etc. 
Evils,    Social,     30  ff.,     Chapters 
II-V 

Vid.  Ignorance,  Poverty,  etc. 

Faith,  in  India  and  Japan,  142 
Family,  Importance  of,  95  ff. 

Progress  in  Ideals  of,  Chap- 
ter III 
Female  infanticide  act,  India,  156 
Feudalism,  Japan,  200 
Fiji  Islands : 

Cannibalism,  148  f. 

Infanticide,  151 
Foochow : 

Infanticide,  female,  152  f. 
Baby -tower,  153 

Foot-binding,  180 
Foot-binding,  in,  179  f. 

Missionary  and,  38,  180 
Formosa : 

Temperance,  145 

Truthfulness    of    Christians, 
170 

Gambling,  178  f. 

God,  Christian  Doctrine  of,  267 

Gold  Coast,  ordeals,  163 

Goreh,  Miss,  135 

Gospel,  effect  and  appeal,  41  f. 

Government,  Corruption  of,  36 

Grants-in-aid,  56 

Great    Britain   and   slave   trade, 

165 
Griffis,  Dr.  W.  E.,  181 
Gujarat,  Infanticide,  154 

Hankow,  Infanticide,  154 


Hausaland  slave-trade,  165 
Hawaii : 

Industrial  education,  65 

Instructions  to  missionaries, 
42 
Health  conditions,  effect  of,  21 
Heimin,  Vid.  Japan 
Hervey  Islands,  Vid.  Raratonga 
Hindu,  The,  re  position  of  woman, 

122 
Hinduism  : 

Change    of  views   re    poly- 
theism, 239 

re  idolatry,  239 

Expansion,  235 

Indebted  to  Christ,  239 

Pessimism,  23 
Hinduism,  Reformed,  248  ff. 

Vid.  Brahma  Samaj,  Arya 
Samaj 
Hinin,  Vid.  Japan 
Holi,  festival,  186 
Holy  men,  141 
Home,  Christian,  117  f. 
Honesty,  lack  of,  36 
Hong     Kong,     Christians     and 

plague,  74 
Honour,  Missionary  influence  on, 

40 
Hook-swinging,  India,  160 
Housing,  Problem  of,  28 

Reform  in  United  States,  1 9 
Human  sacrifice,  145  ff. 

Ideals,  Ethical  : 

Growth  and  influence,  28 

Missionary  and,  38 
Ideals,    Social,   Missionary   and, 

38 

Ignorance,  30 

Removal  of,  Chapter  II 

India  : 

Ascetics,  159 
Caste,  191  ff. 

Weakening  of,  211 
Christian  leaders,  174 
Christians,  poverty,  49 
Doctrine  of  faith,  142 


Index 


289 


Economic  inefficiency,  32 
Education,  80 

Hindu,  80 

Moslem,  80 
Education,  Government,  80 

Christian  women  teach- 
ers, 62  f. 

Industrial,  86 
Education,  Missionary,  54  f., 

56 

Effect  of,  60 

Government,  relation  to, 
56 

Influence      of      higher 
schools,  60 

Standing  of,  61 
Education,    Missionary     In- 
dustrial, 65  ff. 
Ethics,  140 
Government,  216  f. 

Municipal,  215 

Representation  in,  216  f. 
Holy  men,  141 
Human  sacrifices,  145,  147 
Impurity,  1846°. 
Infanticide,  female,  154  ff. 

Act  of  1870,  156 

Sacrificial,  155  f. 
Islam,  Vid.  Islam,  India 
Marriage,  early,  100  f. 

Raising  of  age,  125 
Medical  missions,  71,  90 
Ordeals,  161,  164 
Outcastes,  influence  of  Chris- 
tianity upon,  175 

Education,  61  f. 
Political  unrest,  105  f. 
Polygamy,  103 
Poverty,  33 

Social  effects  of,  48 
Prostitution,  141,  186 

Religious,  187  f. 
Purity,  new  standards,  185 
Races,  193 

Sati,  abolished,  38,  126  f. 
Self-torture,  159 
Slavery,  164 
Suicide,  158 


Truthfulness    of   Christians, 

171 
Widows,  103  f. 
Child-,  105 
Marriage  of,  127 
Widow   Marriage    Act, 
127 
Woman,  99  ff. 

Christians,  133  ff. 
Conservative  force,  96  f. 
Education,  123 
New    attitude    towards, 

122 
Progress,  121 
Vid.  Caste 
Indian  Social  Conference,  187 
Indian  Social  Reformer,  157 
Indians,  North  American,  indus- 
trial education,  65 
Individual : 

Missionary  influence  on  po- 
sition of",  40 
Position  in  Japan,  204 
Position    of,   in   Orient,  35, 

189 
Type  of,   created   by  Chris- 
tianity, 172 
Industrial  Training,   Missionary, 

T     33'   55 

Industry  ; 

Influence  of  new,  28 

Missionary,  relation  of,  to,  38 

New  dangers  in,  45  f. 
Inefficiency,  Economic,  31  f.,  39, 

Chapter  II 
Infanticide : 

Female,  151  ff. 

Prevalence  of,  150  f. 
Influence,  Western,  26,  45 

Missionary's  relation  to,  37 
Initiative,  lack  of,  190 
Institutions,  Social,  i8f. 
Intemperance,  143  f. 
Irrigation,  23 
Ishii,  Mr.,  222 
Islam  : 

Ethics  of,  142 

India,  241  ff. 


290 


Index 


Agha  Khan,  243 
Educational      societies, 

246 
Mirza  Shulam   Ahmed, 

246 
Rational      reinterpreta- 

tions  of,  244  f. 
Sayed     Ahmed    Khan, 

242 
Social  reforms,  243 
Modifications  of,  240 
Slavery  under,  1 64 
Sway  of,  235 

Jains,  Infanticide,  155 
Jamaica,  Slavery,  168 
Janes,  Capt.,  222 
Japan  : 

Adopts      achievements      of 
others,  25 

Buddhism,    Vid.   Buddhism, 
Reformed 

Christian  influence  in,  175, 
222 

Commoners,  202 

Concubinage,  131,  181 

Daimyos,  202,  218 

Divorce,  113 

Earthquake  construction,  23 

Education,     Government, 

77  ft 

Industrial  schools,  70, 87 
Education,     Mission,     54  f., 

57>  59  f- 

Missionary  and,  37 
Eta,  203 

Faith,  doctrine  of,  142 
Feudal  organization,  200  ff. 
Government,  2196°. 

and   mission  education, 

56 
Reconstruction  of,  2 1 7  ff. 
Heimin,  202 
Hinin,  203 

Individual,  position  of,  204 
Industrial  changes,  20,  87 
Journalism,   Christian   influ- 
ence on,  59 


Literature : 

Ethical  tone,  264 
Influence   of    Christian 
schools  upon,  59 
Marriage,  forms  of,  113 
Medical  progress  and  train- 
ing, 87 
Monogamy  in,  183 
Moral  tone,  45 
Nobility,  201 

Orphanages,  Christian,  76 
Patriotism,  172 
Philanthropy,  91 
Poverty,  effects,  48 
Prostitution,  181 
Purity,  181  ff. 
Revolution  of  1869,  217  ff. 
Samurai,  laws  re,  20 1  (.,  218 
Sanitation,  88 
Slavery,  164 
Suicide,  157  ff. 
Temperance,  145 
Truthfulness   of    Christians, 

171 
Virtues,  retention  of,  221 
Woman,  1 1 2  ff. 

Christian   influence   on, 

136 
Dangers    for,    131   and 

note 
Progress,  i3off. 
Johannesburg,  record  of  mission 

education,  63  f. 
Johnston,  Sir  Harry  H.,  167 
Justice  : 

Absence  of,  36 

Effect  of  Gospel  upon,  4 1 

Kenjiro,  Tokutomi,  59 
Keshub  Chunder  Sen,  253  ff. 
Khama,  Chief : 

Character,  174 

Fight  for  temperance,  143  f. 

Polygamy  suppressed,  119 
Kindergartens,  Missionary,  54 
Kinnear,  Dr.,  75 
Koran,    New    attitude    towards, 
244  f. 


Index 


291 


Korea : 

Medical  progress,  88 

Slavery,  164 

Vid.  Japan 
Kois,  Ordeals  among,  161 
KotO-GakkO,  78 
Kshatriyas,  192 

Le  Roy,  Rev.  W.  E.,  63 
Lewanika : 

Human  sacrifices  suppressed 
by,  148 

Ordeals  under,  164 
Life,  Estimate  upon,  35 
Lifu,  Cannibalism  suppressed,  149 
Literature,  Western,  27 
Little,  Mrs.  Archibald,  180 
Living,  Standard  of,  33,  39 
Livingstone,   David    and    slave- 
trade,  166 
Livingstonia  Mission,  70 
Lovedale,  70 

Macgowan,  Dr.,  180 
Madagascar : 

Infanticide,  151 

Ordeals,  162,  164 
Madras : 

Infanticide,  female,  157 

Marriage  age,  126 
Madras  Christian  College,  60 
Maebashi,  Prostitution  in,  182 
Malwa,  Infanticide,  female,  154 
Maoris  : 

Cannibalism,  149 

Temperance,  144 
Mazumdar,  172 
Mbau  Island,  Infanticide,  151 
Medical  Missions,  aim,  5 1 

Vid.  Missions,  Medical 
Medical  Schools,  Missionary,  54 
Medical  work,  need,  70 
Medicine  : 

Development  of,  87  ff. 
China,  89 
India,  90 
Japan,  88 
Siam,  89 


Missionary  and,  39 
Social  results  of,  41 
Men  and  Religion  Movement,  42 
Messina  earthquake,  20 
Mirza  Ghulam  Ahmed,  246 
Missionaries,  Medical,  72 
Missionary  : 

Scope  of  work  of,  43  f. 
Social  influence,  37  ff.,  40 
Influence  on  Bulgaria,  39 
Influence  vs.  Foot-binding,  38 
Ignorance,  39 
Obscenity  in  Hinduism, 

38 
sail,  38 
Influence  on  Turkey,  39 

in     suppressing    social 

evils : 
Vid.    Cannibalism,   In- 
fanticide, Ordeals,  etc. 
Missions  : 

Aim  of,  42  f. 
Crisis  of,  275  f. 
Objections  to,  25 
Missions,  Medical ; 

End  of,  in  Japan,  87 
Extent  of,  7 1 
Influence  of,  72 
Plague,  work  against,  73 
Training  natives,  75 
Women  physicians,  71 
Mitter,  Miss  Mary,  134 
Morals,  Vid.  Ethical  Standards 
Mysore,  marriage  age,  ioo,  125 

Natural- Foot  Association,  180 
Nature  : 

Aspect  of,  22,  41 
Dependence  upon,  47 
Nautch-girls,  186  f. 
Neesima,  Joseph  H.,  59,  222 
New    Hebrides,    Woman,    posi- 
tion, 98 
New  Zealand,  Temperance,  144 
Nigeria,  Slavery,  169 
Ningpo,  Woman's  Club,  129 
Nitobe,  Dr.,  222 
Nogi,  General  Count,  158  f. 


292 


Index 


Normal     Training,    Missionary, 

53  f. 

North-West     Province,     Infanti- 
cide, 157 
Nurses'  Training,  Missionary,  54 
Nyasaland : 

Ordeals,  162  f. 

Temperance,  144 

Occident  vs.  Orient,  26 
Okuma,  Count,  222 
Old  Calabar : 

Cannibalism,  149 

Human  sacrifices,  147 

Infanticide,  150 

Ordeals,  162  f. 

Slavery,  168 
Opium,  Vid.  China 
Opium  Conference,  International, 

177 
Ordeals,  Cruel,  161  ff. 
Orient  vs.  Occident,  26 
Orphanages,  Christian,  59 

Missionary,  54 
Osaka,  Prostitution,  182 
Outcastes,  Vid.  India,  Outcastes 

Pacific  Islands  : 

Vid.  Infanticide,  etc. 

Woman,  98,  119 
Panama,  Health  conditions,  22 
Parsees,  Marriage  law,  126 
Patriotism,  Lack  of,  172 
Peking  : 

Government  schools,  57 

Union  Medical  school,  76,  89 
Persia,  Education,  37 
Pessimism,  23 
Philanthropy,  Christian,  Chapter 

II 
Philippines  : 

Cholera,  22 

Slavery,  164 
Plague,  Immunity,  73  f. 
Political,  Ideals,  29 

Missionary,  relation   of,  38  f. 

Reforms,  weakness,  231 


Polygamy,  97  f.,  103,  109 

Population,  Density,  22 

Poverty,  Chapter  II,  33,  50  f. 

Progress,  Chapter  I 

Hindered  by  poverty,  49 
Missionary,  relation  to,  37  ff. 

Prostitution,    Vid.  India,  japan, 
Purity 

Provincialism,  30 

Purity,  36,  40 

Vid.  India,  Japan 

Rajputs,  Infanticide,  154 

Ram    Mohan    Roy,    Raja,    127, 

248  ff. 
Ramabai,  Pundita,  134,  136 
Raratonga,  Cannibalism,  149 
Rearing-marriage,  108 
Red  Cross  Society,  Japan,  91 
Reform,  Lack  of  leaders,  46 
Religions,  non-Christian : 
Changes  in,  Chapter  VI 
Characteristics  of,  236 
Disintegration  of,  237 
Weakness  of,  265  f. 
Responsibility,  personal,  189,  210 
Rhodesia,  Mission  education,  56 
Robert  College,  58 
Royal  Niger  Company,  169 

Salvation,  Christian    doctrine, 

274 
Samurai,  hara-kiri,  157 

Vid.  Japan 
Sanitation,  28,  73 
Sati,  38,  104,  126 
Satthianadhan,  Mrs.,  134 
Sayed  Ahmed  Khan,  Sir,  242  f. 
Selfishness,  172 
Self-support,  49 
Self-torture,  159  ff. 
Seoul,  temple,  264 
Serampore  college,  52 
Sexes,  in  India,  155 
Shans,  Human  sacrifices,  146 
Shensi,  Christians,  171 
Shintoism,  266,  272 
Shome,  Mrs.  N.,  135 


Index 


293 


Siam,  Slavery,  164 

Sin,  Christian  Doctrine,  269 

Singh,  Miss  L.  R.,  134 

Slavery,  20,  41,  164  ff. 

Slave-trade,  Work  of  Living- 
stone, 166 

Sleeping-sickness,  22 

Social  Ideals,  Vid.  Ideals,  Social 

Social  Organization,  Chapter  V 

Society  Islands,  Human  sacri- 
fices, 146 

Soil,  Influence  of,  22 

Sorabji  family,  135  f. 

Standards,  Ethical,  compared, 
138  ff. 

Standard  of  living,  41,  87 

Steam  engine,  20 

Sudras,  192  f.,  196  f. 

Suffering,  Physical,  31 

Suicide,  157  ft. 

Syrian  Protestant  College,  58,  75 

Tamil  proverbs,  99 
Temple-girls,  187  f. 
Thakurs,  Infanticide,  157 
Theological  training,  53,  55 
Tientsin  orphan  asylum,  153 
Tilak,  Rev.,  174 
Tokyo,  Religious  census,  237 
Torture,  Self-,   Vid.  Self-torture 
Toson,  Shimasaki,  59 
Townsend,  Meredith,  271 
Trade,  Relation  of  missionary  to, 

37 
Transportation,  Effect  of,  26 
Truthfulness,  36,  169  ff. 
Tsuda,  Miss  Ume,  quoted,  131  ff., 

note 
Turkey  : 

Constitutional  reform,  229 
Education,    Missionary,    37, 

54,  56»  65 
Missionary  influence,  39 
Religious  disintegration,  238 


Uganda  : 

Education,  56,  70 

Human  sacrifices,  146L 

Polygamy,  119 

Slavery,  169 
United  States,  Slave-trade,  165 
Universities'  Mission   to  Central 

Africa,  167 
Ushashi,  Woman  in,  98 
Uyemura,  Rev.,  272 

Vaccination,  73 
Vaishyas,  192 
Verbeck,  Dr.,  222 

Warneck,  Dr.  J.,  148 

Watanabe,  Judge,  222 

West,    Need    of    Christianizing, 

231,  279 
Widows,  Vid.  China,  India 
Widow-Marriage  Act,  127 
Witchcraft,  162 
Woman,  Chapter  III 

Vid.  Africa,   China,  India, 
etc. 
Woman,  Education,  Christian,  39, 
H4ff. 
Influence,  96 
Woman,  The  New,  l3of. 

Vid.  China,  Japan 
Women,    Christian,    128,    I33ff., 
136 

Vid.  China,  India,  Japan 
World's  Women's  Christian  Tem- 
perance Union,  145 

Yokoi,  222 

Yoruba,  Human  sacrifices,  148 

Young  Turks,  39,  58 

Zanzibar,  Slave-trade,  165,  167 
Zulu,  Preacher,  174 

Homes,  119  f. 
Zulu  Mission,  Temperance,  144 


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HOME  AND  FOREIGN  MISSIONS 


ROLAND  ALLEN,  M.A. 

Essential  Missionary  Principles 

i2mo,  cloth,  net  $1.00. 

An  author  new  to  American  readers  has  claimed  attention 
of  students  of  missions  through  his  recent  thought-compelling 
book,  Missionary  Methods — St.  Paul's  or  Ours?  This  latter 
volume  dealing  with  the  principles  of  missions  well  supple- 
menting the  volume  on  methods. 

ROLAND  ALLEN,   M.A.        Library  of  Historic  Theology 

Missionary  Methods :  St.  Paul's  or  Ours  ? 

With  Introduction  by  Rt.  Rev.  Henry  Whitehead, 
D.D.,  Lord  Bishop  of  Madras.    8vo,  cloth,  net  $1.50. 

Is  this  book  the  true  answer  to  the  question  as  to  why 
Christian  Missions  do  not  progress  to-day  as  rapidly  as  we 
should  like  to  see  them  doing?  Dr.  Allen  was  formerly  a 
missionary  in  North  China  and  author  of  "The  Siege  of 
Peking  Legations"  and  writes  from  large  experience.  His 
arguments  for  the  application  of  truly  Pauline  methods  of 
envangelization  in  foreign  mission  fields  are  startling.  The 
reader  may  not  agree  with  all  of  his  criticisms  and  sugges- 
tions but  the  discussion  which  will  be  aroused  cannot  fail  to 
be  helpful.  It  is  a  vigorous  presentation  of  a  profoundly 
important  subject. 

MISS  MINNA  G.  COWAN 

The  Education  of  the  Women  of  India 

Illustrated,  i2mo,  cloth,  net  $1.25. 

The  subject  is  treated  historically,  philosophically  and 
suggestively.  The  contributions  made  by  the  government, 
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the  educational  problems  of  the  country  are  clearly  shown. 
The  book  is  an  important  and  suggestive  addition  to  the 
literature  of  education  in  foreign  lands,  being  a  worthy 
companion  volume  to  Miss  Burton's  "The  Education  o* 
Women  in  China." 

LIVINGSTON  F.  IONES 

A  Study  of  the  Thlingets  of  Alaska 

i2mo,  cloth,  illustrated,  net  $1.50. 

For  twenty-one  years  the  author  has  labored  as  a  mission- 
ary representing  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Home  Missions 
among  the  people  about  which  he  writes.  Probably  no  living 
man  is  better  qualified  to  tell  about  this  interesting  race. 
Hon.  James  Wickersham  says:  "Contains  much  that  is  new 
and  valuable  in  respect  to  the  social  life  and  ancient  cus- 
toms of  the  Thlinget  Indians.  An  interesting  and  valuable 
contribution  to   the  ethnology  of  the   Pacific   Coast. 


FOREIGN  MISSIONS 


M.  WILMA  STUBBS 

How  Europe  Was  Won  for  Christianity 

Illustrated.     i2mo,  cloth,  net  $1.50. 

The  story  of  the  first  seventeen  centuries  of  Christianity  is 
here  told  in  the  lives  of  the  great  missionaries  of  the  church 
beginning  with  St.  Paul.  So  far  as  we  are  aware  no  single 
volume  containing  so  complete  a  collection  of  the  lives  of  these 
pioneers  in  missionary  work  has  before  been  published. 
Miss  Stubbs  has  done#  a  very  real  and  important  service  to 
the  cause  of  missions  in  making  the  lives  of  these  great  men 
live   for  the  inspiration  of  younger  generations  of  to-day. 

R.  FLETCHER  MOORSHEAD,   M.B.,  F.R.C.S. 

The  Appeal  of  Medical  Missions 

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ations upon  which  the  Medical  Mission  enterprise  is  based, 
presenting  a  true  conception  of  the  need,  value  and  importance 
of  this  great  work  in  the  spread  of  the  Gospel.  Dr.  Moore- 
head  knows  his  subject  well  and  he  gives  a  wealth  of  inter- 
esting facts  regarding  The  Character  and  Purpose  of  Medical 
Missions — The  Origin  and  Authority,  Justification,  Need, 
Value — The  Practice  of  Medical  Missions,  Woman's  Sphere 
in  lhem,   Training  for,  Home  Base,  Failure,  Appeal,  etc. 

JAMES  S.  DENNIS,  D.  D. 

The  Modern  Call  of  Missions : 

Studies  In  Some  of  the  Larger  Aspects  of  a  Great 
Enterprise.    8vo,  cloth,  net  $1.50. 

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showing  their  great  and  sweeping  influence  on  human  life 
and  social  progress.  It  is  a  logical  and  searching  study  of 
the  power  of  the  Gospel  as  it  goes  into  other  lands  and  there 
meets  the  facts  and  elements  that  make  up  the  life  of  the 
people.  Dr.  Dennis  has  had  the  personal  experiences  and 
knowledge  which  enable  him  to  speak  with  authority.  An 
exceedingly  valuable  contribution  to  the  missionary  literature 
of   the    day." — Herald   and   Presbyter. 

ARCHIBALD  McLEAN 

Epoch  Makers  of  Modern  Missions 

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directness  of  style  and  inspirational  value,  have  rarely  been 
surpassed.  Each  characterization  is  truly  "much  in  little," 
and  the  bcok  is  a  distinct  and  most  acceptable  addition  to 
missionary  biography. 


FOREIGN  MISSIONS  AND  YOUNG  PEOPLE 

BELLE  M.  BRAIN 

Love  Stories  of  Great  Missionaries 

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In  these  love  stories  of  the  World's  great  missionaries  she  is 
at  her  best.  It  is  evident  from  these  romances  of  Judson 
and  Gilmour  and  Livingstone  and  Moffat  and  Caillard  and 
Martyn,  which  she  portrays  with  such  fascination,  that  love, 
courtship  and  marriage  are  very  vital  factors  in  the  Mission- 
ary Enterprise. 

JULIA    H.    JOHNSTON 

Fifty  Missionary  Heroes  Every  Boy  and 
Girl  Should  Know 

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Johnston  gives  living  portraits  of  a  large  number  of  mission- 
ary heroes  well  adapted  to  interest  and  inspire  young  people. 

EMILY  E.  ENTWISTLE 

The  Steep  Ascent 

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and  interestingly  written,  adapted  to  the  Junior  and  lower 
Intermediate  grades  for  which  so  few  books  of  this  sort  are 
written." 

BASIL  MA THEWS,   M.A. 

The  Splendid  Quest 

Stories  of  Knights  on  the  Pilgrim  Way.  l2tno, 
cloth,  net  $1.00.  ±    , 

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which  follow.  The  stories  are  suitable  for  children  of  from 
8  to  15. 

REV.   W.  MUNN 

Three  Men  on  a  Chinese  Houseboat 

The  Story  of  a  River  Voyage  Told  for  Young 
Folks.     Illustrated,  iamo,  cloth,  net  $1.00. 

The  story  of  an  actual  trip  up  the  Yang-tse  river  taken  by 
three  missionaries  on  the  way  to  their  stations.  In  breezy, 
easy-flowing  narrative  one  of  the  three  tells  the  very  inter- 
esting story  of  their  fifteen  hundred  mile  journey.  The  book 
should  be  a  very  acceptible  addition  to  missionary  stenef 
and  side-light  reading. 


BIOGRAPHY— MISSIONARY 

JOHN  T.  FARIS  Author  of"  Men  Who  Made  Good" 

The  Alaskan  Pathfinder 

The  Story  of  Sheldon  Jackson  for  Boys.  Illus- 
trated, i2mo,  cloth,  net  $1.00. 

The  story  of  Sheldon  Jackson  will  appeal  irresistibly  to 
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rescued  from  a  fire  to  his  years'  of  strenuous  rides  through 
the  Rockies  and  his  long  years'  of  service  in  Alaska,  per- 
meate every  page  of  the  book.  Mr.  Faris,  with  a  sure  hand, 
tells  the  story  of  this  apostle  of  the  Western  Indians  in  clear- 
cut,  incisive  chapters  which  will  hold  the  boy's  attention 
from   first   to   last. 

G.    L    WHARTON 

Life  of  G.  L.  Wharton 

By  Mrs.  Emma  Richardson  Wharton.  Illustrated, 
l2mo,  gilt  top,  cloth,  net  $1.25. 

A  biography  of  a  pioneer  missionary  of  the  F.  C.  M.  S., 
Written  Dy  a  devoted  wife  who  shared  the  experiences  of 
her  husband  in  a  long  service  in  India  and  Australia.  It  is 
a  life  of  unusual  interest  and  an  important  addition  to  the 
annals  of  modern  missionary  effort. 

MRS.  LAURA  DELANY  GARST 

A  West  Pointer  in  the  Land  of  the 
Mikado 

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The  story  of  a  great  life  given  unreservedly  to  the  aervic* 
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West  sends  the  East  and  typical  of  that  missionary  spirit  in 
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of  the  Christ  life  in  man.  The  Christian  world  will  be  proud 
•f  and  wish  to  study  such  a  record — coming  generations 
will  find  here  inspiration  and  incentive  for  yet  greater  ef- 
fort and  larger  sacrifice. 

HENRY   OTIS  DJFIGHT 

A  Muslim  Sir  Galahad 

A  Present  Day  Story  of  Islam  In  Turkey.  Net  $1.00. 

"The  author  of  'Constantinople  and  Its  Problems,'  has 
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Recent  events  in  the  Near  East  make  this  book  of  unusual 
interest,  and  a  better  book,  throwing  sidelights  on  the  Mo- 
hammedan  question,   could   net  be   found."— -Pacific   Prasby- 

iMB. 


FOREIGN  MISSIONS— BIOGRAPHY 


DANIEL  McGILVARY,  P.P. 

A  Half  Century  Among  the  Siamese 
and  the  Lao 

An  Autobiography  of  Daniel  McGilvary,  D.D. 
With  an  Introduction  by  Arthur  J.  Brown,  D.D. 
Illustrated,  i2mo,  cloth,  net  $2.00. 

There  is  no  more  fascinating  story  in  fiction,  or  in  that 
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privation  of  loneliness  and  sometimes  of  danger;  how  the 
missionaries  persevered  with  splendid  faith  and  courage  until 
the  foundations  of  a  prosperous  mission  were  laid  are  por- 
traved  with  graphic  power.  It  is  a  book  of  adventure  and 
human  interest  and  a  notable  contribution  to  American  for- 
eign missionary  literature." — Presbyterian  Banner. 

WILLIAM  ELLIOT  GRTFFIS,  P.P.,  L.H.P. 

A  Modern  Pioneer  in  Korea 

The  Life  Story  of  Henry  G.  Appenzeller.  Illus- 
trated, i2mo,  cloth,  net  $1.25. 

This  life  is  another  stirring  chapter  in  the  record  of 
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antee of  its  thoroughness,  accuracy  and  interest.  Dr.  Griffis 
has  woven  a  most  picturesque  and  interesting  background  of 
Korean  landscape,  life  and  history.  It  is  a  book  that  will 
win  interest  in  missionary  effort. 

MARGARET  E.  BURTON 

Notable  Women  of  Modern  China, 

Illustrated,  i2mo,  cloth,  net  $1.25. 
Ihe  author's  earlier  work  on  the  general  subject  of 
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with  peculiar  interest  and  discernment  the  characters  making 
up  this  volume  of  striking  biographies.  If  these  women  ar" 
types  to  be  followed  by  a  great  company  of  like  aspirations 
the    future    of   the    nation    is   assured. 

ROBERT  McCHEYNE  MATEER 

Character-Building  in  China 

The  Life  Story  of  Julia  Brown  Mateer.  Illustra- 
ted, i2mo,  cloth,  net  $1.00. 

"Gives  a  vivid,  many-sided  picture  of  missionary  work. 
It  is,  in  fact,  an  answer  to  such  questions  as,  How  is  mis- 
sionary life  practically  lived?  It  is  of  engrossing  interest 
alike  to  the  advocates  of  missionary  work  and  general  readers 
who  enjoy  real  glimpses  of  foreign  and  pagan  civilization.  — 
Presbyterian  Advance. 


ESSAYS,  GIFT  BOOKS,  ETC. 

NEWELL  D WIGHT  HILLIS,    P.P. 

Lectures  and  Orations  by  Henry  Ward 
Beecher 

Collected  and  with  Introduction  by  Newell  Dwight 
Hillis.    i2mo,  cloth,  net  $1.20. 

It  is  fitting  that  one  who  is  noted  for  the  grace,  finish 
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his  predecessor  which  he  deems  worthy  to  be  preserved,  the 
most  characteristic  and  the  most  dynamic  utterances  of 
America's  greatest  pulpit  orator. 

PA  VIP    SWING 

The  Message  of  David  Swing  to  His 

CZt*Tl£±tr\+\r\T\    Addresses  and  Papers,  together  with  a  Study  of 
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A  collection  of  some  of  David  Swing's  greatest  orations 
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them  together,  contributes  an  eloquent  tribute  to  his  dis- 
tinguished confrere  in  an  Introductory   "Memorial  Address." 

WAYNE    WHIPPLE 

The  Story-Life  of  the  Son  of  Man 

8vo,  illustrated,  net  $2.50. 

Nearly  a  thousand  stories  from  sacred  and  secular  sources 
woven  into  a  continuous  and  complete  chronicle  of  the 
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from  the  best  that  has  been  written,  mosaic  like,  a  vivid  and 
attractive  narrative  of  the  life  of  lives.  Mr.  Whipple's  life 
stories  of  Washington  and  Lincoln  in  the  same  unique  form, 
have  both  been  conspicuously  successful  books. 

GAIUS  GLENN  ATKINS,  P.  P. 

Pilgrims  of  the  Lonely  Road 

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In  nine  chapters  the  author  presents  what  he  calls  the 
"Great  Books  of  the  Spirit".  Beginning  with  the  Medita- 
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sight and  clarity  of  expression  the  Confessions  of  St.  Augus- 
tine, Thomas  a'Kempis'  Imitation  of  Christ,  the  Iheologia 
Germanica,    Bunyan's   Pilgrim's   Progress,   etc. 

ROSE   PORTER 

A    Gift   Of   LOVe       *nd  Loving  Greetingi  for  365  D«yt 

New  Popular  Edition.    Long  i6mo,  net  50c. 

"All  the  texts  chosen  present  some  expressions  of  God's 
love  to  man,  and  this  indicates  the  significance  of  the  title." 
•— Tht  Luthtron  Qbserv&r. 


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